The Utah Deaf Education Controversy:
Total Communication Versus Oralism
at the University of Utah
Total Communication Versus Oralism
at the University of Utah
Compiled & Written by Jodi Christel Becker
Published in 2012
Updated in 2025
Published in 2012
Updated in 2025
Jeff W. Pollock
Author's Note
I had the privilege of exploring the significant impact of Dr. Grant B. Bitter, an advocate for oral education and mainstreaming for Deaf children, on Deaf education in Utah. This journey was made possible by my father-in-law, Kenneth L. Kinner, a proud 1954 graduate of the Utah School for the Deaf and the father of two Deaf children, Duane and Deanne. As a parent of two Deaf children, I am grateful to Jeff W. Pollock, a Deaf Education Advocate, for his efforts in uncovering and preserving the essential documents of Dr. Bitter. His research for his Master's degree at the University of Utah was crucial in bringing these documents to light. When Dr. Bitter retired in 1987, he generously donated his collection to the J. Willard Marriott Library.
Jeff presented his findings at the 2005 Utah Association for the Deaf Conference, marking a significant milestone in this journey. His discovery of Dr. Bitter's detailed records, along with my own "The Deaf Education History in Utah" manuscript from 2006 discussing Dr. Bitter's impact on Deaf education in Utah, led to the creation of this website—a digital tribute to his remarkable preservation efforts. None of this would have been possible without his generous donation of documents to the library!
You can find Jeff W. Pollock's research paper titled "The Utah Deaf Education Controversy: Total Communication Versus Oralism at the University of Utah/" This paper was submitted for his Master's degree in "History of Higher Education" on May 4, 2005.
Jeff, your dedication and passion for this project have not gone unnoticed. I am truly grateful for your invaluable contribution.
Thank you, and enjoy reading!
Jodi Christel Becker
Jeff presented his findings at the 2005 Utah Association for the Deaf Conference, marking a significant milestone in this journey. His discovery of Dr. Bitter's detailed records, along with my own "The Deaf Education History in Utah" manuscript from 2006 discussing Dr. Bitter's impact on Deaf education in Utah, led to the creation of this website—a digital tribute to his remarkable preservation efforts. None of this would have been possible without his generous donation of documents to the library!
You can find Jeff W. Pollock's research paper titled "The Utah Deaf Education Controversy: Total Communication Versus Oralism at the University of Utah/" This paper was submitted for his Master's degree in "History of Higher Education" on May 4, 2005.
Jeff, your dedication and passion for this project have not gone unnoticed. I am truly grateful for your invaluable contribution.
Thank you, and enjoy reading!
Jodi Christel Becker
Dr. Grant B. Bitter,
the Father of Mainstreaming
Under the leadership of Dr. Grant B. Bitter, a firm advocate for oral and mainstream education, Utah's groundbreaking movement to mainstream all Deaf children began in the 1960s. Dr. Bitter's efforts earned him the title of 'Father of Mainstreaming.' This movement was in stark contrast to the historical significance of Dr. Martha Hughes Cannon, America's first female state senator and a member of the Board of Trustees of the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind, who, in 1897, spearheaded a proposal for the 'Act Providing for Compulsory Education of Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Citizens,' which mandated attendance at the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind in Ogden, Utah (Pace, The Utah Eagle, October 1946; Martha Hughes Cannon, Wikipedia, April 20, 2024). Her legislation led to its successful passage in 1897 and marked a turning point in the education of Deaf and Blind children. However, Dr. Bitter advocated for mainstreaming all Deaf children, paving the way for widespread acceptance of this approach in 1975 with the passage of Public Law 94-142, now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Dr. Grant B. Bitter. Source: The Utah Eagle, October 1967
His daughter, Colleen, was born Deaf in 1954, which inspired his dedication to the advancement of both oral and mainstream education. Dr. Bitter supported the idea of mainstreaming for all Deaf and hard-of-hearing children for two main reasons: his own Deaf daughter and his internship experience at the Lexington School for the Deaf. During his master's degree studies, he interned at Lexington School for the Deaf, an oral school, and was shocked to see young children having to leave their parents for a week, often crying and screaming. His role as a father of a Deaf child, as well as his experience, inspired him to advocate for mainstreaming, allowing Deaf children to attend local public schools at home (Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987).
Martha Hughes Cannon. Source: Utah State Historical Society, Deseret News Archives
In the 1970s, Dr. Stephen C. Baldwin, a Deaf educator who served as the Total Communication Division Curriculum Coordinator at the Utah School for the Deaf, shared his observations of Dr. Bitter. Dr. Bitter, a firm advocate of oral and mainstream philosophy, was particularly vocal about his beliefs. His influence, as Dr. Baldwin noted, was profound. Dr. Bitter was a hard-core oralist and one of the top figures in oral Deaf education, and no one was more persistent than him in promoting an oral and mainstream approach. Dr. Baldwin recalled how Dr. Bitter's criticism of the growing use of sign language had a significant impact, arguing that it hindered the development of oral skills and contributed to lower enrollment in residential schools, which he believed isolated Deaf individuals from mainstream society (Baldwin, 1990). Dr. Bitter likely disagreed with Dr. Martha Hughes Cannon and her team's proposal to mandate education for Deaf children at the state institution.
Dr. Stephen C. Baldwin
Dr. Bitter's advocacy for the oral and mainstreaming movements sparked a long-standing feud with the Utah Association for the Deaf, a group comprised mainly of graduates from the Utah School for the Deaf, particularly Dr. Robert G. Sanderson, a prominent Deaf community leader in Utah who became Deaf at the age of 11 and was a staunch supporter of sign language and state schools for the deaf. The intense animosity between these two giants was due to the ongoing dispute over oral and sign language in Utah's Deaf educational system. Their struggle was akin to a chess game, with each maneuvering politically to gain the upper hand in the Deaf educational system. As a top figure in oral Deaf education, Dr. Bitter played a significant role in shaping Deaf education policies, advocating for an oral and mainstream approach. Dr. Bitter and Dr. Sanderson, as did the Utah Association for the Deaf, engaged in disagreements during the listening and speaking demonstration panels, picket protests, education committee meetings, and board meetings. Dr. Bitter has also formally demanded the termination of Dr. Robert Sanderson and Dr. Jay J. Campbell, two esteemed advocates for sign language, due to what he perceives as their interference with his mission to promote oral and mainstream education. He has also expressed dissatisfaction with Beth Ann Stewart Campbell's television interpretation of news in sign language, as he felt it did not align with his educational goals. Finally, he has asked Della L. Loveridge, a Utah legislator and respected chairperson of the committee, to resign due to her decision to invite representatives from the Utah Association for the Deaf, which he perceived as a drift from the committee's focus. Dr. Bitter held significant power as a parental figure and used parental influence and leverage to advocate for oralism, making it challenging for the Utah Association for the Deaf to oppose him. The Utah Association for the Deaf demonstrated remarkable resilience in response to the challenges posed by Dr. Bitter's opposition. This period was a significant turning point in their history and played a crucial role in shaping Deaf education policies. Their strength and determination not only helped them overcome these obstacles but also served to inspire others along the way.
Dr. Robert G. Sanderson. Source: Gallaudet University Archives
Dr. Bitter has had an extensive career in teaching and curriculum development. His journey began at the Extension Division of the Utah School for the Deaf in Salt Lake City, Utah, where he worked as a teacher and curriculum coordinator. His passion for education led him to become a director and professor in the Teacher Training Program, where he focused primarily on oral education under the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah. Dr. Bitter also served as the coordinator of the Deaf Seminary Program under The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Utah.
Dr. Bitter strongly believed in oralism, which is the conviction that Deaf individuals should learn to speak. This belief was not merely theoretical for him; he actively supported the cause by founding the Oral Deaf Association of Utah (ODAU) in 1970. This initiative reflected his commitment to oral Deaf education. In 1981, he also established the Utah Registry of Oral Interpreters. Additionally, Dr. Bitter served as the chair of the Utah Chapter of the Alexander Graham Bell Association, where he led efforts to support and advocate for oral Deaf individuals, further demonstrating his dedication to this mission (Bitter, Summary Report for Tenure, 1985; Bitter, Utah's Hearing-Impaired Children... At High Risk, 1986).
Dr. Bitter taught the Teacher Training Program within the Special Education Department at the University of Utah for nineteen years, starting in 1968, focusing on oral education. His ambition to promote oral and mainstreaming sparked a heated controversy between oral and sign language, particularly with the Utah Association for the Deaf. Dr. Bitter's unwavering commitment also had a huge impact on the oral philosophy movement at the Utah School for the Deaf, as well as the integration of Deaf education into mainstream society.
Dr. Bitter strongly believed in oralism, which is the conviction that Deaf individuals should learn to speak. This belief was not merely theoretical for him; he actively supported the cause by founding the Oral Deaf Association of Utah (ODAU) in 1970. This initiative reflected his commitment to oral Deaf education. In 1981, he also established the Utah Registry of Oral Interpreters. Additionally, Dr. Bitter served as the chair of the Utah Chapter of the Alexander Graham Bell Association, where he led efforts to support and advocate for oral Deaf individuals, further demonstrating his dedication to this mission (Bitter, Summary Report for Tenure, 1985; Bitter, Utah's Hearing-Impaired Children... At High Risk, 1986).
Dr. Bitter taught the Teacher Training Program within the Special Education Department at the University of Utah for nineteen years, starting in 1968, focusing on oral education. His ambition to promote oral and mainstreaming sparked a heated controversy between oral and sign language, particularly with the Utah Association for the Deaf. Dr. Bitter's unwavering commitment also had a huge impact on the oral philosophy movement at the Utah School for the Deaf, as well as the integration of Deaf education into mainstream society.
'Interest in Sign Language on the Rise.' Source: The UAD Bulletin, Spring 1964
In the late 1960s and 1970s, a national shift in Deaf education was underway, moving from the oral method to Total Communication, which included the use of sign language. This change was greatly influenced by Dr. William C. Stokoe's research, which established American Sign Language (ASL) as an official language with its own syntax, morphology, and structure (Wikipedia: William Stokoe). Despite this groundbreaking work, many professionals in Utah's Deaf education field remained resistant to change and continued to advocate for the oral approach. Furthermore, the University of Utah's Teacher Training Program did not include sign language in its curriculum, highlighting the challenges faced during this transition period.
Dr. William C. Stokoe Jr. Source: Wikipedia
In 1971, the Utah Association for the Deaf, led by Lloyd H. Perkins, the Chairperson of the UAD Educational Committee, requested a written review of the Teacher Training Program (L. Perkins, personal communication, no date). On December 7, 1971, Dr. Erdman, the Department of Special Education Chairperson, wrote back to affirm to Lloyd that there would be a meeting on December 13 to review the Teacher Training Program. Dr. Stephen Hencley, the Dean of the Graduate School of Education, responded to Lloyd's letter on December 16, 1971, assuring him that the Teacher Training Program would undergo curriculum changes and incorporate a sign language component (Dr. Erdman, personal communication, December 6, 1971).
Lloyd H. Perkins. Source: UAD Bulletin, Winter 1970
Four years later, on July 23, 1974, Dr. Jay J. Campbell followed up with Dr. Erdman, the Chairperson of the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah. He requested a report to confirm the implementation of a comprehensive communication curriculum in the Teacher Training Program. In response, Dr. Erdman informed Dr. Campbell that the Teacher Training Program hired Gene Stewart, a Children of Deaf Adults (CODA) and vocational rehabilitation counselor, in 1972 to teach a sign language course. Dr. Erdman's letter also included the new policy, as stated: "All students who are preparing to become teachers of the hearing impaired are required to master the basic manual communication competencies through involvement in one or both of the above described classes or be able to demonstrate those competencies if they have already had previous manual communication experiences and/or coursework in that area" (Dr. Erdman, personal communication, p. 2, August 15, 1974). There was a disagreement between the Utah Association for the Deaf and the Special Education Department regarding the extent of total communication courses that the program would offer. The Utah Association for the Deaf expected a comprehensive Total Communication Program, while the Teacher Training Program had a different perspective on this expectation.
Dr. Jay J. Campbell. Source: UAD Bulletin, June 1973
In 1977, the Utah Association for the Deaf continued to advocate for including a total communication curriculum in their program. They urged President Alfred C. Emery of the University of Utah and other administrators to review the Teacher Training Program, modify the curriculum, and include sign language as an equal component of oralism. In late August or early September 1977, UAD representatives met with Dr. Pete D. Gardner, Vice President for Academic Affairs at the University, to present a 9-point list of concerns regarding the Teacher Training Program, as shown in the section below. During the meeting, Lloyd Perkins and other UAD representatives requested a meeting with President Emery to present their concerns. However, Dr. Gardner responded by sending a letter to Lloyd Perkins' wife, Madeleine Burton Perkins, who served as an interpreter for the meeting. In the letter, Dr. Gardner informed them that a meeting with President Emery would be unproductive and that Dr. Bitter had not violated any academic standards (P.D. Gardner, personal communication, September 14, 1977).
The Utah Association for the Deaf has released a nine-point list of complaints about the Teacher Training Program at the University of Utah. Source: J. Willard Marriott Library
President Emery's refusal to meet sparked controversy when W. David Mortensen, a well-known political activist and president of the Utah Association for the Deaf, organized two protests. The first protest took place on November 18, 1977, outside the Utah State Office of Education, and the second on November 28, 1977, in front of the Park Building on the University of Utah campus. The University of Utah sparked the protests due to its unequal oral and total communication training program, preference for oral-only education, bias against the total communication method of teaching, preference for day schools, lack of a Deaf representative on the Advisory Committee, and consistent failure to listen to UAD and the Utah Deaf community. On November 28, approximately twenty Deaf people gathered in front of the Park Building to protest the university's handling of their concerns. M. J. Lewis published a letter to the Deseret News, stating that "Dr. Bitter has so brainwashed and put fear into parents that their children will never be able to function as normal human beings" (Lewis, Deseret News, November 28, 1977; Jeff Pollock, The Utah Deaf Education Controversy, May 4, 2005).
W. David Mortensen
During the protest, Dr. Bitter's still stance on how Deaf students should be educated in oralism and his rejection of the Utah Association for the Deaf's demand to include sign language in his curriculum. In response to the Utah Association for the Deaf protest, Dr. Bitter said, "We are trying to be fair and meet individual needs" (Hunt, The Daily Utah Chronicle, November 29, 1977, p. 1; Hunt, The Daily Utah Chronicle, December 2, 1977). He responded that he supported an oral-only approach because he believed it was the most effective way to help Deaf children integrate into society (Hunt, The Daily Utah Chronicle, November 29, 1977, p. 1).
Dr. Bitter further contended that oralism would help Deaf children develop a positive self-concept and prepare them for mainstream life independently without relying on a sign language interpreter. He further clarified that the Teacher Training Program included sign language classes. Dr. Bitter noted that the university had met its obligations to the Utah State Board of Education by incorporating total communication opportunities in its oral curriculum (Graduate School of Education, November 28, 1977; Hunt, The Daily Utah Chronicle, December 2, 1977).
Dr. Bitter further contended that oralism would help Deaf children develop a positive self-concept and prepare them for mainstream life independently without relying on a sign language interpreter. He further clarified that the Teacher Training Program included sign language classes. Dr. Bitter noted that the university had met its obligations to the Utah State Board of Education by incorporating total communication opportunities in its oral curriculum (Graduate School of Education, November 28, 1977; Hunt, The Daily Utah Chronicle, December 2, 1977).
Pickets are outside the Utah State Office of Education, protesting the University of Utah's oral teaching method for the Deaf. Source: Deseret News, November 19, 1977
The protests, led by UAD President Mortensen, caught the attention of the Utah State Board of Education. In April 1979, they passed a motion directing the University of Utah to hire a faculty member to teach a total communication class to prospective Deaf education teachers (The Silent Spotlight, June 1979; Jeff Pollock, The Utah Deaf Education Controversy, May 4, 2005). From 1979 to 1985, Dr. Robert G. Sanderson taught ASL (then total communication) as well as the social, psychological, and cultural aspects of deafness as an adjunct professor in the Division of Communication Disorders at the University of Utah (Newman, 2006).
Arnold Moon. Source: The Daily Utah Chronicle, November 29, 1977
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Zelma Moon. Source: The Daily Utah Chronicle, November 29, 1977
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On April 20, 1982, Utah State University approved a new Deaf education major, marking a significant milestone in Utah's history of Deaf education. This major allowed teacher candidates to study total communication skills, a crucial aspect of Deaf education. Leading this program was Dr. Thomas C. Clark, the founder of SKI-HI, which served Deaf babies and toddlers. He was the hearing son of a Deaf father, John H. Clark, who graduated from the Utah School for the Deaf in 1897 and became the first Utah graduate of Gallaudet College in 1902. Dr. Thomas C. Clark was also the second cousin of Elizabeth DeLong, who, like John H. Clark, also graduated from the Utah School for the Deaf in 1897; was the first Utah graduate from Gallaudet College in 1902; and was the first female president of the Utah Association of the Deaf in 1909. However, it's important to note that funding was unavailable until 1985, when Utah State University established a preparation program to provide a total communication component.
Dr. Thomas C. Clark
John H. Clark. Source: FamilySearch.org
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Elizabeth DeLong. Source: FamilySearch.org
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In 1974, the SKI-Hi Model packet featured Duane Kinner, the son of Deaf parents Kenneth and Ilene Kinner, on its front cover. The packet provided training through amplification and home intervention when visiting families with Deaf infants and toddlers.
Duane Kinner, the son of Deaf parents Kenneth and Ilene Kinner, was featured on the front cover of the SKI-Hi Model packet in 1974
Launching a Total Communication Program at Utah State University was a huge step forward for the Utah Association for the Deaf and the Utah Deaf community! Previously, the majority of total communication teachers in Utah were from other states, while the majority of oral teachers came from the University of Utah. In 1991, Dr. J. Freeman King, a newly hired hearing professor, transformed the Deaf Education Program at Utah State University from a Total Communication Program to a Bilingual-Bicultural Program (UAD Bulletin, October 1991).
Dr. J. King Freeman
In 2007, Dr. Karl R. White, a psychology professor at Utah State University, led the establishment of the Listening and Spoken Language program. Initially, this led to a heated debate between the Bilingual-Bicultural Program and the Listening and Spoken Language Program. Nonetheless, they coexisted and focused on their work within the same department.
Dr. Karl R. White
Over the years, Dr. Bitter has strongly advocated oralism and mainstreaming. The decline of education at the Utah School for the Deaf, as well as the integration of more Deaf students into mainstream education, saddened its alums. In Utah, the oral and mainstreaming movements have influenced Deaf education since the early 1960s, with Dr. Bitter playing a pivotal role. He used his influence and parental power to promote oralism in Deaf education, making it difficult for the Utah Association for the Deaf to challenge him. After the Teacher Training Program in the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah closed in 1986, Dr. Bitter retired in 1987 (Bitter, A Summary Report for Tenure, March 15, 1985). Today, the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah offers a Specialization in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Program. While the curriculum does include American Sign Language classes, it still places a greater emphasis on listening and speaking. This reflects the impact that Dr. Bitter, who passed away in 2000, continues to have on Deaf education in Utah. To learn more about the evolving mainstreaming movement, visit the 'Dr. Robert G. Sanderson's Mainstreaming Perspective' webpage.
Dr. Bitter revealed in an interview with the University of Utah in 1987 that he had been the target of a vicious attack by the Utah Deaf community. Community leaders viewed him as a scoundrel who knew nothing about deafness. During this time, picketers gathered on the University of Utah campus and at the Utah State Office of Education, staging protests that included burning his effigy. The "Years of Controversy" paper also contains slanderous statements, detailed in Jeffrey W. Pollock's paper, like, "Jay J. Campbell will put Burbank down. Power is UAD" and "J.J. Campbell and R. Sanderson will throw Boyd Nielsen out of job in Utah, in America, and out of this world. UAD is Deaf power" (Bluhm, Grant Bitter, Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987). It is clear that Dr. Bitter had little understanding of Deaf people's experiences in the oral and mainstreaming educational system. He could have gained a deeper understanding of Deaf people's experiences by listening to their viewpoints.
Dr. Bitter revealed in an interview with the University of Utah in 1987 that he had been the target of a vicious attack by the Utah Deaf community. Community leaders viewed him as a scoundrel who knew nothing about deafness. During this time, picketers gathered on the University of Utah campus and at the Utah State Office of Education, staging protests that included burning his effigy. The "Years of Controversy" paper also contains slanderous statements, detailed in Jeffrey W. Pollock's paper, like, "Jay J. Campbell will put Burbank down. Power is UAD" and "J.J. Campbell and R. Sanderson will throw Boyd Nielsen out of job in Utah, in America, and out of this world. UAD is Deaf power" (Bluhm, Grant Bitter, Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987). It is clear that Dr. Bitter had little understanding of Deaf people's experiences in the oral and mainstreaming educational system. He could have gained a deeper understanding of Deaf people's experiences by listening to their viewpoints.
A Biography of Jeffrey W. Pollock
In 2007, Jeff Pollock established and directed the Davis Applied Technology College ASL-Interpreting Program. In various capacities, he has been a consultant for the Utah Interpreting Program since 1995, as a former member and chairperson, and (2012) co-chairperson of the UIP Advisory Board. Jeff’s career has included teaching ASL, Linguistics, and Deaf Studies at the high school, community college, and university levels, coordinating interpreting services for the University of Utah, and serving as an instructor at the ASL Teaching Program of the University of Utah. Jeff has a Bachelor of Science in Biology and a Master’s degree in Educational Leadership and Policy, and he is a Certified Deaf Interpreter.
He has served on the Utah Interpreter Certification Advisory Board and Advisory Council for the Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind from 2011 to 2013, representing the Utah Deaf community.
Jeff has a passion for snowboarding, skiing, skateboarding, wakeboarding, waterskiing, motorcycling, and other sports involving standing or sitting on something and going fast! He has competed in three Deaflympics (1999 Davos, Switzerland; 2003 Sundsvall, Sweden; and 2007 Salt Lake City, Utah) and would have competed in 2011 Vysoke, Slovakia, if they weren’t canceled. He is a certified snowboard coach.
He has served on the Utah Interpreter Certification Advisory Board and Advisory Council for the Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind from 2011 to 2013, representing the Utah Deaf community.
Jeff has a passion for snowboarding, skiing, skateboarding, wakeboarding, waterskiing, motorcycling, and other sports involving standing or sitting on something and going fast! He has competed in three Deaflympics (1999 Davos, Switzerland; 2003 Sundsvall, Sweden; and 2007 Salt Lake City, Utah) and would have competed in 2011 Vysoke, Slovakia, if they weren’t canceled. He is a certified snowboard coach.
References - Coming soon!
