Sociology of the Utah School for the Deaf
in the Utah Deaf Community,
1890-1970
Compiled & Written by Jodi Christel Becker
Edited by Valerie G. Kinney
Published in 2015
Updated in 2025
Edited by Valerie G. Kinney
Published in 2015
Updated in 2025
Author's Note
We are grateful to Elaine Roberts for her master's thesis, 'The Early History of the Utah School for the Deaf and Its Influence on the Development of a Cohesive Deaf Society in Utah, c. 1884–1905,' published in 1994. Her work is significant to Utah School for the Deaf history and for this 'Sociology of the Utah School for the Deaf in the Utah Deaf Community' webpage. Thank you, Elaine Roberts, for your outstanding contribution to this research project!
Anne Leahy and Doug Stringham, esteemed scholars, have dedicated their careers to extensive research on the history of Deaf Latter-day Saints in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, as well as the early history of the Utah School for the Deaf. Their research collection, 'Far Away, In the West: The Emergence of Utah's Deaf Community, 1885–1910,' contains valuable information about our Utah Deaf Community's early history. I wanted to express my gratitude to Anne and Doug for their valuable information on the early history of the Utah Deaf Community, as well as for Doug's recommendation to use this title in the manuscript that eventually became this webpage. A heartfelt thank you for your contributions to this project!
This webpage delves into the pivotal role of the Utah School for the Deaf, founded in 1884, in shaping the Deaf community in Utah. The school was instrumental in fostering Deaf communities in Ogden and Salt Lake City, with many of its students going on to become leaders. Additionally, the 1960s brought the impactful oral and mainstreaming movements, which had a significant impact on the Deaf community in Utah, marking a challenging chapter in the evolution of Deaf education.
When writing about exceptional individuals for our history website, I use their first names to show appreciation for everyone who contributes to and supports our community's causes. Our patriarchal culture often links women's achievements to their husbands' last names rather than acknowledging their contributions under their own names. I want to break that mold. By using first names on the website, we promote inclusivity and equality. More importantly, this approach celebrates each individual's unique identity. Let's unite to honor everyone's contributions!
Also, our organization was formerly known as the Utah Association for the Deaf. We changed our name to the Utah Association of the Deaf in 2012. To provide some background, we were originally called the Utah Association of the Deaf from 1909 to 1962. In 1963, we changed to the Utah Association for the Deaf, and then in 2012, we returned to our original name. When I write for the history website, I include both "of" and "for" to accurately represent the different eras in our association's history.
Thank you for taking an interest in this topic. This webpage is intriguing to me because it contains information about the early history of the Utah School for the Deaf and the formation of the Utah Deaf Community.
Enjoy!
Jodi Christel Becker
Anne Leahy and Doug Stringham, esteemed scholars, have dedicated their careers to extensive research on the history of Deaf Latter-day Saints in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, as well as the early history of the Utah School for the Deaf. Their research collection, 'Far Away, In the West: The Emergence of Utah's Deaf Community, 1885–1910,' contains valuable information about our Utah Deaf Community's early history. I wanted to express my gratitude to Anne and Doug for their valuable information on the early history of the Utah Deaf Community, as well as for Doug's recommendation to use this title in the manuscript that eventually became this webpage. A heartfelt thank you for your contributions to this project!
This webpage delves into the pivotal role of the Utah School for the Deaf, founded in 1884, in shaping the Deaf community in Utah. The school was instrumental in fostering Deaf communities in Ogden and Salt Lake City, with many of its students going on to become leaders. Additionally, the 1960s brought the impactful oral and mainstreaming movements, which had a significant impact on the Deaf community in Utah, marking a challenging chapter in the evolution of Deaf education.
When writing about exceptional individuals for our history website, I use their first names to show appreciation for everyone who contributes to and supports our community's causes. Our patriarchal culture often links women's achievements to their husbands' last names rather than acknowledging their contributions under their own names. I want to break that mold. By using first names on the website, we promote inclusivity and equality. More importantly, this approach celebrates each individual's unique identity. Let's unite to honor everyone's contributions!
Also, our organization was formerly known as the Utah Association for the Deaf. We changed our name to the Utah Association of the Deaf in 2012. To provide some background, we were originally called the Utah Association of the Deaf from 1909 to 1962. In 1963, we changed to the Utah Association for the Deaf, and then in 2012, we returned to our original name. When I write for the history website, I include both "of" and "for" to accurately represent the different eras in our association's history.
Thank you for taking an interest in this topic. This webpage is intriguing to me because it contains information about the early history of the Utah School for the Deaf and the formation of the Utah Deaf Community.
Enjoy!
Jodi Christel Becker
Anne Leahy. Source: Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, inc.
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Doug Stringham. Source:Utah Valley University
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The Population of Deaf People
The population of Deaf individuals in Utah began to increase in 1849. The United States Census of 1860 recorded fourteen Deaf individuals living in Salt Lake, Davis, Utah, and Iron counties. By 1900, the numbers had risen to 343 Deaf individuals in Salt Lake, Davis, and Weber counties. However, by 1910, this number had declined to 236 Deaf individuals in those counties (Stringham & Leahy, 2013). At that time, there were no schools for the deaf in Utah, and there was a lack of community development among Deaf people.
Deaf Utahns Educated or Tutored At Home
Deaf individuals in Utah primarily received their education at home before the establishment of the Utah School for the Deaf in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1884. Historians Anne Leahy and Doug Stringham, who specialize in the Deaf Latter-day Saints community, note that the Utah Territory period saw the homeschooling of several Deaf children. The territory didn't establish state educational agencies until 1877, and the Salt Lake City Board of Education didn't come into existence until 1890. Consequently, children in Utah, especially Deaf children, lacked access to public schools (Anne Leahy, personal communication, June 7, 2011).
Between 1850 and 1880, Deaf children in Utah had limited educational options. Parents of young Deaf children often took on the responsibility of teaching and tutoring them at home. For instance, Laron Pratt, the son of Apostle Orson Pratt of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, became deaf at the age of three and received his education at home. Sarah Eckersley was nine years old when her family emigrated to Utah; she had been Deaf since she was eighteen months old, and her mother tutored her at home. Her father also educated Mary Irene Foote, a Deaf woman born in Fort Union in 1855, at home alongside her two other Deaf sisters. While some Deaf adults who moved West may have attended schools for the Deaf in the East—like Henry C. White, who later became the principal and teacher at the Utah School for the Deaf—options for Deaf children during the Utah Territory were quite limited. This underscores the lack of resources and support for Deaf education at that time (Doug Stringham, personal communication, June 2, 2011).
Between 1850 and 1880, Deaf children in Utah had limited educational options. Parents of young Deaf children often took on the responsibility of teaching and tutoring them at home. For instance, Laron Pratt, the son of Apostle Orson Pratt of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, became deaf at the age of three and received his education at home. Sarah Eckersley was nine years old when her family emigrated to Utah; she had been Deaf since she was eighteen months old, and her mother tutored her at home. Her father also educated Mary Irene Foote, a Deaf woman born in Fort Union in 1855, at home alongside her two other Deaf sisters. While some Deaf adults who moved West may have attended schools for the Deaf in the East—like Henry C. White, who later became the principal and teacher at the Utah School for the Deaf—options for Deaf children during the Utah Territory were quite limited. This underscores the lack of resources and support for Deaf education at that time (Doug Stringham, personal communication, June 2, 2011).
The Founding of the
Utah School for the Deaf
Utah School for the Deaf
The Utah School for the Deaf, a transformative institution that opened in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1884, has had a lasting impact on its students' lives. At the school, students not only received an education but also developed a strong sense of community. As the Utah School for the Deaf evolved, it became a beacon of empowerment for its students. The majority of the student body consisted of younger students, and their social dynamics shifted over time.
The school's dedication to individual growth and independence was evident in the education and social skills training it offered. This training equipped students to collaborate, find employment, and contribute meaningfully to society. Over the years, the school's influence was evident in the growing trends of Deaf marriages and vocational education training (Roberts, 1994).
This institution marked a significant milestone in the history of Deaf education in the state by providing formal education for Deaf children.
The school's dedication to individual growth and independence was evident in the education and social skills training it offered. This training equipped students to collaborate, find employment, and contribute meaningfully to society. Over the years, the school's influence was evident in the growing trends of Deaf marriages and vocational education training (Roberts, 1994).
This institution marked a significant milestone in the history of Deaf education in the state by providing formal education for Deaf children.
The Utah School for the Deaf, part of the University of Deseret, was located at Professor Henry C. White's home in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1886. Source: American School for the Deaf, 1817-1893
The Utah Deaf community underwent significant transformation, largely influenced by the Utah School for the Deaf. The institution focused on preparing its students to become future leaders in Salt Lake City and Ogden, Utah. Additionally, it played a crucial role in establishing social organizations for the deaf, both within the state and beyond. This initiative provided students with a platform to enhance their leadership skills, enabling them to participate in various social, educational, religious, and vocational groups (Roberts, 1994).
Before the establishment of the Utah School for the Deaf, individuals from families with congenital deafness displayed remarkable resilience. They often had more experience interacting with other Deaf people compared to those from hearing families who became Deaf later in life. Deaf siblings, parents, or other relatives were common among people born Deaf, which fostered early connections with the Deaf community. In contrast, Deaf individuals from hearing families frequently experienced feelings of isolation.
Certain individuals with hearing backgrounds, such as John H. Clark (Deaf at age 11), Elizabeth DeLong (Deaf at age 5), Dr. Robert G. Sanderson (Deaf at age 11), and Ned C. Wheeler (Deaf at age 13), had an advantage. Since they could speak before losing their hearing, they were often able to communicate more effectively with both the Deaf and hearing communities after learning sign language. This contrasted with those born Deaf, who often faced challenges in learning to speak (Roberts, 1994).
The establishment of the Utah School for the Deaf in 1884 was a significant milestone in the history of the Utah Deaf community. Laron Pratt, a 37-year-old early leader within the Deaf community, wrote an essay addressed to the editor of the Deseret News titled "Deaf Mutes: A Good Word in Behalf of the Unfortunates." In this essay, he praised the legislature's initiative to provide education for Deaf children in the Utah Territory and offered a unique perspective on Deaf culture to a hearing audience (Anne Leahy, personal communication, June 3, 2011). Laron's words continue to resonate today, as shown in the following section:
Before the establishment of the Utah School for the Deaf, individuals from families with congenital deafness displayed remarkable resilience. They often had more experience interacting with other Deaf people compared to those from hearing families who became Deaf later in life. Deaf siblings, parents, or other relatives were common among people born Deaf, which fostered early connections with the Deaf community. In contrast, Deaf individuals from hearing families frequently experienced feelings of isolation.
Certain individuals with hearing backgrounds, such as John H. Clark (Deaf at age 11), Elizabeth DeLong (Deaf at age 5), Dr. Robert G. Sanderson (Deaf at age 11), and Ned C. Wheeler (Deaf at age 13), had an advantage. Since they could speak before losing their hearing, they were often able to communicate more effectively with both the Deaf and hearing communities after learning sign language. This contrasted with those born Deaf, who often faced challenges in learning to speak (Roberts, 1994).
The establishment of the Utah School for the Deaf in 1884 was a significant milestone in the history of the Utah Deaf community. Laron Pratt, a 37-year-old early leader within the Deaf community, wrote an essay addressed to the editor of the Deseret News titled "Deaf Mutes: A Good Word in Behalf of the Unfortunates." In this essay, he praised the legislature's initiative to provide education for Deaf children in the Utah Territory and offered a unique perspective on Deaf culture to a hearing audience (Anne Leahy, personal communication, June 3, 2011). Laron's words continue to resonate today, as shown in the following section:
Deaf Mutes
A Good Word in Behalf of the Unfortunates
A Good Word in Behalf of the Unfortunates
Laron Pratt. Source: God Made Me Deaf Accounts from Deaf Latter-day Saints, 1836-1916
Salt Lake City, April 16, 1884,
Editor Deseret News:
It is with a degree of pleasure that I note the fact that the Legislature at its last session, made provision for the instruction and education of the unfortunate deaf and dumb of the Territory, in its primary branches, a much needed and long desired measure which cannot but be of benefit to them. Though the number of deaf mutes in our Territory are but few, it is a step in the right direction to aid them to become useful and self supporting citizens, that they may not be a charge thrown up the community.
I have had a varied experience of some thirty years among these unfortunate beings, and I will say that though this faculty—the faculty of hearing—has been denied them, it is nevertheless true that most if not all are capable of being educated to a better standard of excellence in intellectual and moral culture.
Doubtless it would be interesting to many who do not understand these beings, to give a short sketch upon their mode of life and peculiar way of making themselves understood by those with whom they come in contact.
These are different grades of deafness and dumbness, which may be classified as follows: Those who have been born deaf and dumb are naturally the hardest to bring to an understanding of even the most simple, every-day things. As they grow up and their faculties begin to expand, a vast amount of patience and perseverance will be required of those under whose charge they are placed to bring them to a comprehension of the plainest affair, that is in their uneducated state. Their brain possesses almost the same functions as that of other beings, but are very dormant and of slow growth, aptness not being a characteristic, and rather conspicuous for its absence. They are capable of being educated, but only by object lessons—always have an object to point to when trying to make them comprehend, such as a picture, etc.—they can learn most of the words in common use. Then you bring them to understand the meaning of words by persistently pointing at the object of the sentence; they will thus known what is meant, but they will not know the sound of the word, even of dog, cat, etc. When educating this class many difficulties are to be met with. It would be requisite not only to have a large share of patience, but a good facial expression, with the power to denote love, hate, sorrow, humor, etc., thereon. Deaf and dumb are able to understand facial expression and are quick to comprehend every variety and expression of the human countenance; it amount to an intuition; nothing escapes their notice. Another thing required will be an expressive gesture, not only of the arms, fingers and shrug of the shoulders, but a peculiar movement of the whole body, in imitation and illustration of the subject you may be speaking of. They have a peculiar gesture to denote father, mother, sister, brother, uncle, aunt, etc., and for all the numerous objects that surround them, and whole sentences can be brought to their understanding by a simple gesture of the arm and face. When made familiar with words and objects they will be soon able to connect sentences and learn to put them in proper shape. I have met many deaf mates of eastern cities who considered themselves as having a good education, still in their conversation, which they usually write on small slates carried about in the pocket for that purpose—they seem to have the greatest difficulty in joining sentences together, and they have a rather peculiar way of doing it. Their general mode of conversing among themselves is not only be gestures, but also by means of the deaf and dumb alphabet—single or double; with one hand or with both. In many cases they can spell the object but do not know the meaning, which is explained to them by gesture.
Another class are those who have lost their hearing and in some cases their speech by disease, such as scarlet ever or some great sickness. Some are made totally deaf through the auditory nerve of the ear being destroyed, and some through catarrh and various other diseases. The mental and intellectual faculties of this class are of a superior organization to those of the other, and may, by cultivation, be brought up to a much higher plain. In fact this class may be educated to any degree on a par with the most intelligent being—their reasoning powers and mental capacity to grasp at ideas being the same—with the exception of hearing, and may be taught the sciences, different languages, etc., but is it doubtful whether they can ever attain to a higher degree of perfection or even excellence. They are naturally very sensitive as well as suspicious and generally get very much embarrassed when trying to pronounce a word that they cannot accentuate properly. This grade also have a peculiar way of their won in speaking, being generally through the medium of signs, but more particularly by the formation of words shaped by the mouth. It must be understood that those who are of this latter class, namely—deaf through disease—will be able to talk aloud in most instances like any other person, if brought up to it. And while being able to express themselves understandingly are still in a measure mute—the loss of the hearing more or less affecting the glands of the throat, which are in sympathy with the auditory nerve of the ear, rendering the voice thick, and it cannot be made to harmonize with the variety of sounds produced in speaking. Still they are able to get along in that way without the aid of many signs. If you will converse with an intelligent person who is thus afflicted by writing on a piece of paper or a slate, he will be found to be equal in ideas, expression and refinement to the most intelligent beings, but it is difficult for a person not well acquainted with their habit of understanding the lips by the forming of words thereon without sound to converse really intelligently by that mode. These unfortunates, according to the degree of education they may secure, and according to their intellectual capacity, are able to obtain a fair share of pleasure therefrom. They can more or less enjoy sounds. Even music has its charms. They may all hear different sounds, by this mode:
When a piano or instrument is being played they either put their feet against it or their hand on it, and thus what a mute may say he “heard” is conveyed by the jar of the sound on the nervous system, which vibrates along the member touching the instrument and communicates through the whole body, producing a most delightful music and sensation, and giving a tolerable idea of what music is. A piece of elastic rubber, with one end in the mouth between the teeth and stretched, and with one finger striking it in the middle makes it vibrate. This will give a tolerably fair idea of the sensation of sound.
I would by all means encourage the parents and guardians of these unfortunates to send them to the Deseret University, for by not doing so they know not the pleasure they are depriving them of—the capacity to enjoy what few pleasures fall to them. If they are too poor to send them to the institution, then, in the name of common humanity, let those who profess to be their friends show by their actions and not words—by subscribing means to that end—their appreciation of the condition of their unfortunate fellow-creatures.
Respectfully,
Laron Pratt (Deseret News, Apr. 1884)
Anne Leahy, a researcher of Latter-day Saints history focusing on the Deaf Latter-day Saints community, observed that Laron was an elite Deaf individual with high social status. He recognized his position and decided to leverage his dual citizenship in both the Deaf and hearing communities to serve as an advocate and bridge between the two worlds. Although he was not involved in grassroots efforts, he consistently respected and acknowledged those who contributed to the community (Anne Leahy, personal communication, June 3, 2011).
Editor Deseret News:
It is with a degree of pleasure that I note the fact that the Legislature at its last session, made provision for the instruction and education of the unfortunate deaf and dumb of the Territory, in its primary branches, a much needed and long desired measure which cannot but be of benefit to them. Though the number of deaf mutes in our Territory are but few, it is a step in the right direction to aid them to become useful and self supporting citizens, that they may not be a charge thrown up the community.
I have had a varied experience of some thirty years among these unfortunate beings, and I will say that though this faculty—the faculty of hearing—has been denied them, it is nevertheless true that most if not all are capable of being educated to a better standard of excellence in intellectual and moral culture.
Doubtless it would be interesting to many who do not understand these beings, to give a short sketch upon their mode of life and peculiar way of making themselves understood by those with whom they come in contact.
These are different grades of deafness and dumbness, which may be classified as follows: Those who have been born deaf and dumb are naturally the hardest to bring to an understanding of even the most simple, every-day things. As they grow up and their faculties begin to expand, a vast amount of patience and perseverance will be required of those under whose charge they are placed to bring them to a comprehension of the plainest affair, that is in their uneducated state. Their brain possesses almost the same functions as that of other beings, but are very dormant and of slow growth, aptness not being a characteristic, and rather conspicuous for its absence. They are capable of being educated, but only by object lessons—always have an object to point to when trying to make them comprehend, such as a picture, etc.—they can learn most of the words in common use. Then you bring them to understand the meaning of words by persistently pointing at the object of the sentence; they will thus known what is meant, but they will not know the sound of the word, even of dog, cat, etc. When educating this class many difficulties are to be met with. It would be requisite not only to have a large share of patience, but a good facial expression, with the power to denote love, hate, sorrow, humor, etc., thereon. Deaf and dumb are able to understand facial expression and are quick to comprehend every variety and expression of the human countenance; it amount to an intuition; nothing escapes their notice. Another thing required will be an expressive gesture, not only of the arms, fingers and shrug of the shoulders, but a peculiar movement of the whole body, in imitation and illustration of the subject you may be speaking of. They have a peculiar gesture to denote father, mother, sister, brother, uncle, aunt, etc., and for all the numerous objects that surround them, and whole sentences can be brought to their understanding by a simple gesture of the arm and face. When made familiar with words and objects they will be soon able to connect sentences and learn to put them in proper shape. I have met many deaf mates of eastern cities who considered themselves as having a good education, still in their conversation, which they usually write on small slates carried about in the pocket for that purpose—they seem to have the greatest difficulty in joining sentences together, and they have a rather peculiar way of doing it. Their general mode of conversing among themselves is not only be gestures, but also by means of the deaf and dumb alphabet—single or double; with one hand or with both. In many cases they can spell the object but do not know the meaning, which is explained to them by gesture.
Another class are those who have lost their hearing and in some cases their speech by disease, such as scarlet ever or some great sickness. Some are made totally deaf through the auditory nerve of the ear being destroyed, and some through catarrh and various other diseases. The mental and intellectual faculties of this class are of a superior organization to those of the other, and may, by cultivation, be brought up to a much higher plain. In fact this class may be educated to any degree on a par with the most intelligent being—their reasoning powers and mental capacity to grasp at ideas being the same—with the exception of hearing, and may be taught the sciences, different languages, etc., but is it doubtful whether they can ever attain to a higher degree of perfection or even excellence. They are naturally very sensitive as well as suspicious and generally get very much embarrassed when trying to pronounce a word that they cannot accentuate properly. This grade also have a peculiar way of their won in speaking, being generally through the medium of signs, but more particularly by the formation of words shaped by the mouth. It must be understood that those who are of this latter class, namely—deaf through disease—will be able to talk aloud in most instances like any other person, if brought up to it. And while being able to express themselves understandingly are still in a measure mute—the loss of the hearing more or less affecting the glands of the throat, which are in sympathy with the auditory nerve of the ear, rendering the voice thick, and it cannot be made to harmonize with the variety of sounds produced in speaking. Still they are able to get along in that way without the aid of many signs. If you will converse with an intelligent person who is thus afflicted by writing on a piece of paper or a slate, he will be found to be equal in ideas, expression and refinement to the most intelligent beings, but it is difficult for a person not well acquainted with their habit of understanding the lips by the forming of words thereon without sound to converse really intelligently by that mode. These unfortunates, according to the degree of education they may secure, and according to their intellectual capacity, are able to obtain a fair share of pleasure therefrom. They can more or less enjoy sounds. Even music has its charms. They may all hear different sounds, by this mode:
When a piano or instrument is being played they either put their feet against it or their hand on it, and thus what a mute may say he “heard” is conveyed by the jar of the sound on the nervous system, which vibrates along the member touching the instrument and communicates through the whole body, producing a most delightful music and sensation, and giving a tolerable idea of what music is. A piece of elastic rubber, with one end in the mouth between the teeth and stretched, and with one finger striking it in the middle makes it vibrate. This will give a tolerably fair idea of the sensation of sound.
I would by all means encourage the parents and guardians of these unfortunates to send them to the Deseret University, for by not doing so they know not the pleasure they are depriving them of—the capacity to enjoy what few pleasures fall to them. If they are too poor to send them to the institution, then, in the name of common humanity, let those who profess to be their friends show by their actions and not words—by subscribing means to that end—their appreciation of the condition of their unfortunate fellow-creatures.
Respectfully,
Laron Pratt (Deseret News, Apr. 1884)
Anne Leahy, a researcher of Latter-day Saints history focusing on the Deaf Latter-day Saints community, observed that Laron was an elite Deaf individual with high social status. He recognized his position and decided to leverage his dual citizenship in both the Deaf and hearing communities to serve as an advocate and bridge between the two worlds. Although he was not involved in grassroots efforts, he consistently respected and acknowledged those who contributed to the community (Anne Leahy, personal communication, June 3, 2011).
Deaf female students of the Utah School for the Deaf in Ogden, Utah, in 1896
Marriage of the Deaf Students
In 1694, Jonathan Lambert, a Deaf resident on Martha's Vineyard, off the coast of Massachusetts, began the history of the Deaf in the United States. The secluded islanders' marriages passed down the deaf gene to his generation of descendants (Shapiro, 1994). In rural areas, especially in isolated regions of southern Utah, a pattern of hereditary congenital deafness was common due to inbreeding and intermarriage, similar to Martha's Vineyard. Furthermore, many Deaf families intermarried, perpetuating genetic deafness (Roberts, 1994).
In the West Virginia area, some families with deaf genes joined The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early on. They eventually moved to southern Utah together. President Brigham Young of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints sent these families, along with other members of their families, to Utah. They continued intermarrying, with one or two Deaf relatives joining each generation. Several of these Deaf children had attended the Utah School for the Deaf since its inception. A few Deaf individuals entered into marriage. Most stayed home and helped their families (Roberts, 1994).
In Utah, polygamous intermarriage also contributed to the transmission of the Deaf gene. While intermarriage was declining on Martha's Vineyard, it significantly decreased among Utah families once they enrolled in the Utah School for the Deaf, which provided them with the opportunity to interact with other Deaf individuals from across the state. As a result, Deaf marriage patterns shifted due to socialization at school (Roberts, 1994).
With the expansion of the Utah School for the Deaf, the dynamics of Deaf marriage shifted considerably. Prior to the founding of the Utah School for the Deaf, the marriage patterns of Deaf students were distinct from those of the hearing population. For example, they got married later than the general public. Most of them were single, and only a small percentage of Deaf people lived alone. They either remained at home as maiden aunts and uncles, helping with the family home, or they married someone from their local area. Interestingly, most Deaf educators and advocates at the time were opposed to Deaf-Deaf marriage. They frequently married hearing spouses to compensate for their Deaf genes (Roberts, 1994).
In the West Virginia area, some families with deaf genes joined The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early on. They eventually moved to southern Utah together. President Brigham Young of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints sent these families, along with other members of their families, to Utah. They continued intermarrying, with one or two Deaf relatives joining each generation. Several of these Deaf children had attended the Utah School for the Deaf since its inception. A few Deaf individuals entered into marriage. Most stayed home and helped their families (Roberts, 1994).
In Utah, polygamous intermarriage also contributed to the transmission of the Deaf gene. While intermarriage was declining on Martha's Vineyard, it significantly decreased among Utah families once they enrolled in the Utah School for the Deaf, which provided them with the opportunity to interact with other Deaf individuals from across the state. As a result, Deaf marriage patterns shifted due to socialization at school (Roberts, 1994).
With the expansion of the Utah School for the Deaf, the dynamics of Deaf marriage shifted considerably. Prior to the founding of the Utah School for the Deaf, the marriage patterns of Deaf students were distinct from those of the hearing population. For example, they got married later than the general public. Most of them were single, and only a small percentage of Deaf people lived alone. They either remained at home as maiden aunts and uncles, helping with the family home, or they married someone from their local area. Interestingly, most Deaf educators and advocates at the time were opposed to Deaf-Deaf marriage. They frequently married hearing spouses to compensate for their Deaf genes (Roberts, 1994).
Deaf female students at the Utah School for the Deaf in Ogden, Utah, in 1896-1897. Three women in arrows are left to right: Elizabeth DeLong, Clara Viola Eddy, and Pearl Ault
According to Roberts (1994), over one-third of Deaf individuals had never married before 1890 (p. 33). There are three possible factors contributing to this lack of marriage among early Deaf students:
Alexander Graham Bell, also known as AGB, was one of the most influential oral advocates and eugenicists of his time. He was concerned about the rise of the Deaf community, which he saw as a result of sign language and state residential schools across the country. During his eugenics campaign, he aimed to ban Deaf people from socializing with one another, marrying one another, or reproducing with one another (Lane, 1984; Lane, 1999). He also proposed legislation barring Deaf people from marrying because he was worried that the Deaf race would become more common (Behan, 1989e).
- The isolated rural areas where many of these students grew up made socialization challenging for Deaf individuals.
- The environment had not evolved to facilitate marriage opportunities for Deaf individuals.
- Many family members adopted the prevailing belief among many educators and advocates for the Deaf that marriage should not be considered an option for Deaf individuals (Roberts, 1994, p. 33–34).
Alexander Graham Bell, also known as AGB, was one of the most influential oral advocates and eugenicists of his time. He was concerned about the rise of the Deaf community, which he saw as a result of sign language and state residential schools across the country. During his eugenics campaign, he aimed to ban Deaf people from socializing with one another, marrying one another, or reproducing with one another (Lane, 1984; Lane, 1999). He also proposed legislation barring Deaf people from marrying because he was worried that the Deaf race would become more common (Behan, 1989e).
Students at the Utah School for the Deaf on May 20, 1927. An old truck with piles of students is parked behind the Annex Building and a fire escape cylinder. Seated on the bumper is Wayne Stewart. Standing to his right is Cyrus Freston. Kenneth Burdett is standing tall above the cab of the truck. The first two standing nearest in the bed of the truck are Joseph Burnett (left) and Verl Throup (right)
In "Memoirs Upon the Formation of the Deaf Variety of the Human Race," submitted to the National Academy of Sciences in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1883, Alexander took a controversial stance against the Deaf community and Deaf marriage. He claimed that intermarriage among Deaf individuals was leading to the formation of a "defective deaf race," which was becoming increasingly prevalent and resulting in more deaf births.
Alexander expressed concern over the rising number of Deaf children enrolled in residential schools for the Deaf, believing this trend contributed to the growth of what he referred to as the "defective race." He argued that Deaf individuals were more likely to marry other Deaf people they encountered in these schools. He warned that, as Deaf families intermarried over generations, a distinct group, which he called the Deaf Race, would emerge (Lane, 1984).
To address this issue, Alexander Graham Bell proposed two options:
AGB also advocated for the removal of Deaf teachers from the classroom and condemned the mixed-language educational system that incorporated both sign language and spoken instruction. He supported the use of "pure" oralism in Deaf education and even proposed a bill to prohibit intermarriage between Deaf individuals. However, this bill was not passed due to the inaccurate scientific evidence he presented concerning Deaf intermarriages (Lane, 1984; Lane, 1999).
Alexander expressed concern over the rising number of Deaf children enrolled in residential schools for the Deaf, believing this trend contributed to the growth of what he referred to as the "defective race." He argued that Deaf individuals were more likely to marry other Deaf people they encountered in these schools. He warned that, as Deaf families intermarried over generations, a distinct group, which he called the Deaf Race, would emerge (Lane, 1984).
To address this issue, Alexander Graham Bell proposed two options:
- The preventative method involves closing all residential schools and placing deaf children in public schools alongside hearing children.
- The repressive method involves legally forbidding congenitally Deaf people from marrying each other, despite statistics showing that only 10% of Deaf people have Deaf parents, while 90% have hearing parents (Lane, 1984; Lane, Hoffmeister, & Bahan, 1996).
AGB also advocated for the removal of Deaf teachers from the classroom and condemned the mixed-language educational system that incorporated both sign language and spoken instruction. He supported the use of "pure" oralism in Deaf education and even proposed a bill to prohibit intermarriage between Deaf individuals. However, this bill was not passed due to the inaccurate scientific evidence he presented concerning Deaf intermarriages (Lane, 1984; Lane, 1999).
Alexander Graham Bell. Source: Wikipedia
Alexander Graham Bell's proposed legislation did not become law due to the efforts of Edward Allen Fay, a prominent teacher, publisher, and researcher in Deaf education. In 1893, Fay published a comprehensive study on Deaf marriages and the genetics of deafness. His research demonstrated that most Deaf couples had hearing children, which contradicted AGN's belief that deafness was a hereditary trait that could be transmitted through generations of Deaf families. Edward's work effectively corrected AGB's misconceptions regarding Deaf marriage and heredity (Robert, 1994).
Edward Allen Fay. Source: The American Annuals of the Deaf, Vol. 68, No. 4, September 1923
During the early years of the school, several marriages took place between staff members and students, as well as between the children of staff members. For instance, Elizabeth DeLong, a Deaf teacher, married one of her students, Thomas Loran Savage. The residential environment of the school encouraged interactions between students and staff, making it a significant gathering place for Deaf individuals to socialize. As a result, many Deaf marriages emerged during that time (Robert, 1994).
With its expansion, the Utah School for the Deaf experienced an increase in marriages among its Deaf students. Almost two-thirds of students married within the first twenty years of the school’s establishment. Over time, the majority of students chose to marry other students from the school. The school provided them with valuable skills that enabled them to get married, live independently, and support their families (Roberts, 1994, p. 37).
With its expansion, the Utah School for the Deaf experienced an increase in marriages among its Deaf students. Almost two-thirds of students married within the first twenty years of the school’s establishment. Over time, the majority of students chose to marry other students from the school. The school provided them with valuable skills that enabled them to get married, live independently, and support their families (Roberts, 1994, p. 37).
Elizabeth DeLong and Thomas Loran Savage. Source: The DeLong Family Saga
In addition, the Utah School for the Deaf allowed students to meet people from places other than where they lived. As a result, the school broke down the intermarriage patterns established in rural Utah. Here are some examples of how early school students can break down intermarriage patterns:
Since the school opened, social opportunities have changed the structure of the Utah Deaf community in a big way. Through the skills they learned at the Utah School for the Deaf, the students eventually contributed to their families, education, vocations, communities, and churches (Roberts, 1994).
- Joseph Olorenshaw came to Utah from England. His family settled in Salt Lake City, and he married Helmar Michelson, a fellow student from Largo, Idaho.
- John McMills was born in Summit County but married Pearl Ault, whose family lived in Cedar Fort, Utah.
- Ole Pettit grew up in Salt Lake City, but his wife, Jenine Jensen, was originally from Salina (Robert, 1994, p. 38).
Since the school opened, social opportunities have changed the structure of the Utah Deaf community in a big way. Through the skills they learned at the Utah School for the Deaf, the students eventually contributed to their families, education, vocations, communities, and churches (Roberts, 1994).
John Wallace McMills and Pearl Ault on a wedding day on June 15 1910 in Utah
Students from the Same Families
According to Roberts (1994), during the first twenty-five years after its opening in 1884, many students at the Utah School for the Deaf came from the same families. After their time at the school, the first couple's nieces and cousins married and returned to study together. Although their children did not attend the school, numerous relatives from both families did (Roberts, 1994). In fact, many members of the same family attended the Utah School for the Deaf simultaneously. This included Elizabeth DeLong and John H. Clark, who sent their relatives to the school. Additionally, several sets of siblings, such as the Beck, Bernard, and Thompson families, all attended the school together (First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni, 1976; Roberts, 1994).
Elizabeth DeLong. Source: FamilySearch.org
During their time at the Utah School for the Deaf, the teachers encouraged the students to remain in touch with their families. While the majority of the families were members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, parents of out-of-state students mainly were not. Utah parents preferred to enroll their children in a nearby school, whereas out-of-state parents moved their children to nearby institutions as soon as they became available. Regardless of the school's location, families frequently visited the campus and participated in school activities (Robert, 1994).
The school's social opportunities enabled Deaf communities to grow in Ogden and Salt Lake City as the students moved out into the real world. As the students left school and integrated into the larger society, Deaf communities grew in Ogden and Salt Lake City due to the opportunities for social interaction provided by the school (Roberts, 1994).
The school's social opportunities enabled Deaf communities to grow in Ogden and Salt Lake City as the students moved out into the real world. As the students left school and integrated into the larger society, Deaf communities grew in Ogden and Salt Lake City due to the opportunities for social interaction provided by the school (Roberts, 1994).
John H. Clark. Source: FamilySearch.org
Social Development within
the Utah Deaf Community
the Utah Deaf Community
The Utah Deaf community had few social opportunities until 1884, when the Utah School for the Deaf opened. The school campus allowed students to socialize and connect with their peers. However, living on campus was challenging for some students, who had to adjust to living away from home and sharing a dorm with others. To help students improve their social skills, staff members organized social activities. Through such activities, students learned to collaborate, live, and work independently, as well as develop their emotional and social skills. As a result, they were better equipped to contribute to society and live fulfilling lives (Roberts, 1994).
Students of Utah School for the Deaf, 1928-1930. Back L-R: Wayne Stewart, William Woodward, Alton Fisher, John (Jack) White, Joseph Burnett, possible Leon Edwards, Arvel Christensen, Virgil Greenwood, ____ Front L-R: J. Sherwood Messerly, Rodney Walker, Melvin Penman, Wesley Perry, Verl Throup, _____
The school in Utah provided a range of activities for its students, their families, and the Deaf community. These social opportunities aimed to foster personal growth, encourage interaction with others, and improve social skills. By participating in these events, students were able to meet new people and develop into capable individuals, equipped to face the challenges of life in broader society (Roberts, 1994).
The First Deaf Student from Deaf Parents
Joseph Beck, Jr., was a former student at the Utah School for the Deaf. He enrolled his six-year-old son, Hyrum Hatch Beck, who was also deaf, at the school in the fall of 1906. The Utah Eagle reported on June 6, 1906, that Hyrum was the first Deaf student with Deaf parents to enroll at the Utah School for the Deaf. Joseph Beck, Jr. was the son of Joseph Beck, one of the co-founders of the Utah School for the Deaf in 1884.
Students of the Utah School for the Deaf: Between 1914 & 1919. Top L-R: George Laramie, Frank Fuller, _____, Lee Hunter. 2nd Row: ___________, ________, ____________. Front Row: L-R: __________, ________, Wayne Stewart
Social Interests Among Boys and Girls
In 1921, the Utah School for the Deaf had one hundred and twenty-six students. Primary Hall housed forty-two students, while the Main Building housed eighty-four (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921).
During their time at school, the boys became interested in battle. Some of the school staff were veterans who had fought in wars, and their stories fascinated the boys. The veterans divided the young boys into groups and had them engage in fake wars against each other. Arthur W. Wenger, a graduate of the Utah School for the Deaf in 1913, frequently visited the school and encountered a student who would act "violently" when disturbed. Arthur referred to the boy as a "defeated general" who had either lost the war or was concerned about the safety of his troops when victory was uncertain (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921).
During their time at school, the boys became interested in battle. Some of the school staff were veterans who had fought in wars, and their stories fascinated the boys. The veterans divided the young boys into groups and had them engage in fake wars against each other. Arthur W. Wenger, a graduate of the Utah School for the Deaf in 1913, frequently visited the school and encountered a student who would act "violently" when disturbed. Arthur referred to the boy as a "defeated general" who had either lost the war or was concerned about the safety of his troops when victory was uncertain (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921).
Arthur W. Wenger
During various Indian wars, the boys participated in battles along the Ogden River using trenches, machine guns, cudgels, swords, and helmets made of cushioned cooking utensils. These battles were so daring that they even trampled the dead. The boys kicked, laughed, and threw dirt, corks, and various missiles in the air. However, during one of these battles, the generals drafted the younger boys who were playing baseball, negatively impacting the game. The older boys urged the generals to allow the drafted baseball players to return to the game. The big guys vowed to end the war if they denied the appeal. As a result, the armies disbanded, and the little boys showed their support for baseball by tossing down their rocks (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921).
The boys tended to focus on more structured activities, while the girls enjoyed engaging in free-spirited activities like spinning around in circles. There were also gifted storytellers, such as "Peter Pan," who was always at the center of a joyful gathering, and "Princess," who could spin a delightful tale. One exceptionally skilled girl earned a nickname for her leadership in various activities (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921).
The boys tended to focus on more structured activities, while the girls enjoyed engaging in free-spirited activities like spinning around in circles. There were also gifted storytellers, such as "Peter Pan," who was always at the center of a joyful gathering, and "Princess," who could spin a delightful tale. One exceptionally skilled girl earned a nickname for her leadership in various activities (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921).
Students of the Utah School for the Deaf, 1917-1918. 1st Top Row (L-R): Waldron Robinson, Arthur Hutcheson, Lee Hunter, George Roth, Marvin Stanly or possible Stanley, Nat Underwood, & Allen Fowler. 2nd Row (L-R): Albert Price, Lorn Alsof (maybe Joe Brandberg), Kenneth Burdett, Virgil Greenwood, & George Laramie. 3rd Bottom Row (L-R): Wayne Stewart & Oliver Woodard
Swimming Pool Enjoyment
The Utah School for the Deaf would fill up a swimming pool with fresh water every week and make it available to all groups at specific times. The swimmers were allowed to shout as loudly as they wanted, and the boys and girls were filled with excitement and joy. Arthur W. Wenger believed that this was a great way for them to release their emotions, which could help them manage their anger and avoid conflicts in the future (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921).
Students at the Utah School for the Deaf, 1928-1930. Back L-R: Wayne Stewart, William Woodward, Alton Fisher, John (Jack) White, Joseph Burnett, possible Leon Edwards, Arvel Christensen, Virgil Greenwood, ____ Front L-R: J. Sherwood Messerly, Rodney Walker, Melvin Penman, Wesley Perry, Verl Throup, _____
Extracurricular Activities
at the Utah School for the Deaf
at the Utah School for the Deaf
According to the Alumni Reunion booklets of 1976 and 1984, students at the Utah School for the Deaf had the opportunity to participate in extracurricular activities after school. These activities included the Park Literary Society, Arthur Wenger Athletic Association, Drama Club, Spur Club, Ski Club, Student Body Government, Junior NAD, Student Council, and, various athletic programs, as well as Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. Most of the students were members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and attended church services at the Ogden Branch for the Deaf on Sundays and Tuesday nights. However, non-LDS students attended Protestant chapel services (First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni Booklet, 1976; A Century of Memories: Utah School for the Deaf 100th Year Anniversary Alumni Reunion Booklet, 1984).
The three most prominent clubs on campus were the Park Literary Society, the Arthur Wenger Athletic Association, and the Spur Club.
The three most prominent clubs on campus were the Park Literary Society, the Arthur Wenger Athletic Association, and the Spur Club.
The three most prominent clubs at the Utah School for the Deaf were the Park Literary Society, the Arthur Wenger Athletic Association, and the Spur Club
The Park Literary Society
In 1897, a year after the Utah School for the Deaf moved to Ogden from Salt Lake City, the Park Literary Society was formed to honor Dr. John R. Park, the president of the University of Deseret (now University of Utah), where the Deaf students held him in high regard. The Park Literary Society was the first club at the university and consisted of students aged between fourteen and seventeen who met every two weeks throughout the school year to improve their creative writing and acting skills, as well as their appreciation of literature. The society also provided a platform for students to practice their debating skills on a range of subjects. Students had to prepare their presentations, stories, plays, and debates without any assistance from their teachers (Roberts, 1994).
The Park Literary Society at the Utah School for the Deaf in 1949. Left to right: Secretary Peter Green, Vice-President, Jerry Westburg, President David Mortensen
The "Eaglets" magazines published by the Utah School for the Deaf featured several debate topics, including whether "Lincoln was a greater man than Washington," "the United States should recognize the independence of Cuba," and "boys have more pleasure than girls." Judges, selected from among teachers and members of the Utah Deaf community, determined the debate winners. Debate helped students improve their communication, public speaking, teamwork, organizational skills, and world knowledge through reading (Roberts, 1994; First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni Booklet, 1976; A Century of Memories: Utah School for the Deaf 100th Year Anniversary Alumni Reunion Booklet, 1984). Unfortunately, today's boys and girls miss out on such a wonderful experience.
The Park Literary Society at the Utah School for the Deaf in 1944
The Park Literary Society at the Utah School for the Deaf in 1954
The Park Literary Society at the Utah School for the Deaf in 1955
The Park Literary Society Produced
"The House of Rimmon" Play
"The House of Rimmon" Play
In 1921, the Park Literary Society showcased the creative abilities of the Deaf community in "The House of Rimmon." Arthur W. Wenger, a 1913 Utah School for the Deaf graduate, directed the play based on a Biblical story, with Elsie Christiansen, also Deaf, and a 1907 Utah School for the Deaf graduate providing assistance. The play's first performance in the school chapel was a huge success, prompting a repeat performance at East High School in Salt Lake City. Admission was free, and the crowd gave a standing ovation, highlighting the play's impact. This production not only showcased the abilities of Deaf people but also played a crucial role in raising public awareness about their potential (White, The Silent Worker, June 1920; Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921; UAD Bulletin, Summer 1964).
On September 5, 1956, representatives from the Utah Association of the Deaf and the Utah School for the Deaf met and decided to close the Park Literary Society (Sanderson, The Utah Eagle, October 1956). The reason for society's closure is unclear.
On September 5, 1956, representatives from the Utah Association of the Deaf and the Utah School for the Deaf met and decided to close the Park Literary Society (Sanderson, The Utah Eagle, October 1956). The reason for society's closure is unclear.
The “The House of Rimmon” Play at the Utah School for the Deaf in 1920.
Source: The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1964
Scene from the House of Rimmon Play. Source: The Silent Worker, January 1921
Did You Know?
Dr. John R. Park played a significant role in supporting the Deaf community in Utah. In 1884, two parents of Deaf children, John Beck and William Wood, petitioned the then-territory of Utah's legislature to establish a state school for the deaf. The Legislature granted their request and assigned the task to Dr. Park, who was then the president of the University of Deseret. Dr. Park arranged for the university to establish a class for Deaf students and hired Henry C. White, a Deaf individual from Boston, to lead the program. Dr. Park showed a strong interest in this work throughout his life. For eight years, he served as the head of the Utah School for the Deaf. He recognized the need for the school's independence from the university and used his influence to ensure it happened. When the school became independent and moved to Ogden, he was overjoyed. He was a guest during his visit to the Utah School for the Deaf in Ogden, and the students remembered him. Even shortly before his death, he maintained the same enthusiasm for the school's well-being, which USD employees noted during a visit to his Salt Lake City office. Dr. Park was president of the University of the Territory and State for almost 25 years. He was born on September 30, 1835, and passed away on September 30, 1900 (Metcalf, The Utah Eagle, October 15, 1900; The Utah Eagle, October 15, 1900).
John R. Park Source: Wikipedia
The Arthur Wenger Athletic Association
The Arthur Wenger Athletic Association (AWAA) was a club for older boys founded and named after Arthur W. Wenger, a 1931 graduate of the Utah School for the Deaf. The club was active from 1919 to 1956 and aimed to promote social growth and fellowship among boys through physical activities (Robert, 1994). Students raised funds for the club by selling candy on the school campus under AWAA. However, the club ceased operations on September 5, 1956, when representatives from the Utah Association of the Deaf and the Utah School for the Deaf met for a conference and voted to close the Arthur Wenger Athletic Association. The club used the $1,000.00 it raised as a scholarship fund for the Utah Association of the Deaf Scholarship Fund. This fund later became the Utah Scholarship Foundation for the Deaf and the Ned C. Wheeler Scholarship Foundation for the Deaf (Sanderson, The Utah Eagle, October 1956).
The Arthur Wenger Athletic Association at the Utah School for the Deaf in 1944. L-R: Sam Judd, Merrill Bauer, Melwin Sorensen, Lod Perkins and Paul Loveland
The Arthur Wenger Athletic Association at the Utah School for the Deaf in 1955
The Arthur Wenger Athletic Association at the Utah School for the Deaf in 1956
The Spur Club
The Spur Club was an organization for older females that promoted school activities through sponsorship. Along with the clubs, the Utah School for the Deaf hosted an annual formal banquet to recognize students who excelled in their service. Boy and Girl Scout troops also participated in their designated programs and activities (Roberts, 1994).
The Spur Club at the Utah School for the Deaf in Ogden, Utah, in 1955-56. Front L-R: Gayla Marlow, Afton Curtis Burdett, Lois Williams, Darlene Green, Lucille Simmons, Virginia Brown, Ilene Coles, Elaine Sprouse, Betty Jo Alldredge. Back L-R: Judith Jenkins, Carola Selzle, Lucille Simmons
According to Roberts (1994), extracurricular activities primarily teach students necessary social skills and foster the development of lasting connections. This laid the foundation for the eventual formation of Deaf communities in Utah and Idaho. The Utah School for the Deaf provided a sense of community for Deaf students for the first time, which led to the creation of Deaf organizations that offered support and social activities for these individuals.
Students at he Utah School for the Deaf, between 1933 - 1936. Between 1933-1936. Front Row (L-R): Robert G. Sanderson, ____, _____, Frank Orlando, _______. Back Row (L-R): _____, _____, Lloyd Jones, _____, Oliver I. Langworthy
The Annual May Festival
of the Utah School for the Deaf
of the Utah School for the Deaf
The Utah School for the Deaf organized the first May Festival in 1909 and continued it annually until 1936. During the festival, students from the school showcased their remarkable dancing skills, which attracted a large audience. One performance alone drew 5,000 spectators (Pace, 1946). The ninth edition of the May Festival, which had the theme of "The Story of the Deaf," was the most successful pageant. In May 1920, the Utah School for the Deaf held this pageant on its campus and later on the lawn of Liberty Park in Salt Lake City, Utah. During the pageant, students dressed up in costumes representing various nationalities and portrayed the Deaf community's struggles against 'intolerance and neglect.' The central message of the pageant was that through education, the Deaf community can overcome these obstacles and achieve happiness and success (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921).
Edna Wright in the role of “The
Maiden.” Source: Silent Worker, January 1921
The front cover of The Silent Worker, vol. 33, no. 4, January 1921
Mona Leckliter, Vida Crawford, Elsie Lamb, Gladys Jones, and Coraline Wood performed as soloists in a pageant. Arthur W. Wenger, a 1913 graduate of the Utah School for the Deaf, praised the beautiful performance of these dancers, who represented the five senses of sight, taste, touch, smell, and hearing. As the dancers performed, a group of girls entered, seeking the blessing of the five senses they had received as a gift. With excitement and thankfulness, the girls and their senses danced in unison.
The Annual May Festival
of the Utah School for the Deaf. Source: The Silent Worker, January 1921
However, the girls lost their hearing and separated from their companions. Edna Wright, who portrayed the "Maiden" as "Deaf," passionately pleaded for the blessing of the five senses. Only four of the senses could bestow blessings on the "Maiden." When the "Maiden" discovered she was deaf, she was heartbroken, but the knowledge came to her rescue, summoning nature in the form of butterflies, birds, and flowers to assist her. The "Maiden" was overjoyed.
The pageant highlighted the narrative of the Deaf community's struggle to seek recognition of their rights. Arthur W. Wenger then said that, just before the pageant's end, the dancers showed examples of the many nations. Each was a letdown until the "Maiden" of the Stars and Stripes emerged from the flag's folds. Arthur remarked, "She gave liberty, equity, and prosperity to all." He says that "her graceful dancing and real expression attracted the people who loved her and all the children who helped her" (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921, p. 113).
The pageant highlighted the narrative of the Deaf community's struggle to seek recognition of their rights. Arthur W. Wenger then said that, just before the pageant's end, the dancers showed examples of the many nations. Each was a letdown until the "Maiden" of the Stars and Stripes emerged from the flag's folds. Arthur remarked, "She gave liberty, equity, and prosperity to all." He says that "her graceful dancing and real expression attracted the people who loved her and all the children who helped her" (Wenger, The Silent Worker, January 1921, p. 113).
Dressed in flowing chiffon gowns for their role in one of the
USD’s famous May Festivals in 1920 are, left to right, front,
Corline Wood, Ellen Lusk, Gladys Jones; center, Verda
Williams, Vida Crawford, Catherine Crawford, Eda Wright,
Irene Linderman; back, Mary Erying, Lona Thompson, Mona
Leckliter, Florence Funk, and Violet Taylor. Source: The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963
The May Festival was held
on the Utah School for the Deaf campus in 1910
on the Utah School for the Deaf campus in 1910
The May Festival was held on the Utah School for the Deaf campus in 1910. Merrill Funk took the picture from the 4th floor of the old Main Building
Helen Keller’s Visit to the
Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind
Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind
On March 14, 1941, Helen Keller, a well-known Deaf and Blind woman, and her designated interpreter, Polly Thompson, and business manager, Ida Hirst-Gifford, visited the Utah Schools for the Deaf and Blind (USDB). Before arriving at the school, she had traveled to Utah on behalf of the American Foundation for the Blind, where she testified in front of the legislature to support blind adults. Helen Keller also spoke before a crowd of 5,000 people at the Mormon Tabernacle.
During her visit to USDB, Helen Keller gave a speech in the Main Building chapel, where students gathered to listen to her remarks. The USDB Superintendent, Frank Driggs, assisted with the interpreting, while Polly Thompson, Helen's interpreter, communicated with her using speech and the manual alphabet. When a student spelled out in Helen's hand, asking her, "What is the most outstanding thing you have found on your visit to Utah?" she immediately replied, "The good will toward the adult blind" (The Utah Eagle, March 1941, p. 11).
During her visit to USDB, Helen Keller gave a speech in the Main Building chapel, where students gathered to listen to her remarks. The USDB Superintendent, Frank Driggs, assisted with the interpreting, while Polly Thompson, Helen's interpreter, communicated with her using speech and the manual alphabet. When a student spelled out in Helen's hand, asking her, "What is the most outstanding thing you have found on your visit to Utah?" she immediately replied, "The good will toward the adult blind" (The Utah Eagle, March 1941, p. 11).
Helen Keller. Source: Bio.com
One of the students, Kleda Barker Quigley, remembers the event from her school days when Helen Keller accompanied Polly Thompson to the assembly chapel and delivered a speech in her voice to all the Deaf and blind students. Kleda was amazed by Helen's intelligence and the speed at which she signed with her interpreter, Polly, and astonished that Helen had overcome her double disabilities of being deaf and blind to the best of her ability. Years later, in 2014, Kleda talked about Helen Keller on videophone with some Utah School for the Deaf alums, including Fred Richins, G. Leon Curtis, Jay A. Barker, her brother, Winona Anderson, Gerry Shepard, and others. Leon, Kleda's classmate, asked Helen whether she would rather be deaf or blind over the video call. "Blind," she said. In her interview, Kleda stated that most Deaf people prefer to be deaf rather than blind. Nevertheless, Helen's visit positively impacted Kleda, and she was grateful for the experience (Kleda Quigley, personal communication, April 15, 2015).
Kleda Barker Quigley. Source: Jenkins-Soffe Utah Funeral Homes
The Burdett’s Picnic and Boating Party
In 1953, Kenneth C. Burdett, a Deaf teacher at the Utah School for the Deaf, organized a picnic and boating party for high school students during the summer. Eleanor Kay Kinner, a member of the class of 1954, wrote an article about the event titled "Burdett's Picnic and Boating Party," which was published in the Utah Eagle magazine. In her article, Kinner described how much fun they had at the party and how Burdett was not only an inspirational youth leader but also a wonderful teacher.
“During the summer of 1953, it was so hot that the Utah School for the Deaf high school students always drank lemonades or cold drinks. The lawns and plants were dry because they had so few showers. However, sometimes there was a little rain at night, but not during the day. They surely had a hard time watering the plants, lawns, and flowers so they would grow beautifully. Those who had jobs came home and watered in the evening. They went swimming often to get cool.
On August 2, they received an invitation from the Burdetts to go boating and picnicking. They were filled with excitement, and the invitation extended to some girls and boys who lived far away from Ogden. Some of them came to Ogden so they might go to Pine View Lake together the Sunday after Peter and Sally [Green]’s wedding.
“During the summer of 1953, it was so hot that the Utah School for the Deaf high school students always drank lemonades or cold drinks. The lawns and plants were dry because they had so few showers. However, sometimes there was a little rain at night, but not during the day. They surely had a hard time watering the plants, lawns, and flowers so they would grow beautifully. Those who had jobs came home and watered in the evening. They went swimming often to get cool.
On August 2, they received an invitation from the Burdetts to go boating and picnicking. They were filled with excitement, and the invitation extended to some girls and boys who lived far away from Ogden. Some of them came to Ogden so they might go to Pine View Lake together the Sunday after Peter and Sally [Green]’s wedding.
Eleanor Kay Kinner
"The day began cold and rainy and they thought that they might not be able to go there. While they stayed at the Burdett home, they waited and waited for the rain to stop. Suddenly, the rain stopped, and the sun shone very brightly about noon. They thought the weather was queer. When the sun shone through the window onto the floor, they were ready, and started for Pine View Lake.
Some of them went water-skiing and surf boarding. Some of the girls and boys went riding in the boat with Kenneth Burdett. Kenneth Kinner held onto the rope and went water skiing. They were nonplussed that Max Hardy could water ski and ride a surfboard. He just held onto the rope and rode the waves, then went water skiing at once. He was successful although that was his first time. Von Jones, Dona Mae Dekker, Lawana Simmons, and Bruce Harvey tried to learn how to control themselves while water skiing. Some fell down all the time, but some were successful. Dixie Lee Larsen and Kay Kinner water-skied well because they had done this before at Bear Lake. They had fun going water skiing and surf riding.
At the beach, they rested and the Burdetts treated them to cold drinks. They took sunbaths for a while. They had fun going water skiing and surf riding. They fell and tried to manage themselves.
In the evening, the students went to the Burdetts’ for a barbecue in their yard. It was delicious and they did enjoy going to the picnic and boating party. It was all very interesting for them. Marion Brown and her boyfriend were with them” – Kay Kinner (Kinner, The Utah Eagle, October 1953).
Some of them went water-skiing and surf boarding. Some of the girls and boys went riding in the boat with Kenneth Burdett. Kenneth Kinner held onto the rope and went water skiing. They were nonplussed that Max Hardy could water ski and ride a surfboard. He just held onto the rope and rode the waves, then went water skiing at once. He was successful although that was his first time. Von Jones, Dona Mae Dekker, Lawana Simmons, and Bruce Harvey tried to learn how to control themselves while water skiing. Some fell down all the time, but some were successful. Dixie Lee Larsen and Kay Kinner water-skied well because they had done this before at Bear Lake. They had fun going water skiing and surf riding.
At the beach, they rested and the Burdetts treated them to cold drinks. They took sunbaths for a while. They had fun going water skiing and surf riding. They fell and tried to manage themselves.
In the evening, the students went to the Burdetts’ for a barbecue in their yard. It was delicious and they did enjoy going to the picnic and boating party. It was all very interesting for them. Marion Brown and her boyfriend were with them” – Kay Kinner (Kinner, The Utah Eagle, October 1953).
Students went boating with Kenneth and Afton Burdett, Deaf teachers at
Pineview Reservoir, 1953. Standing L-R: Kay Kinner, Marion Brown,
Bruce Harvey, Dixie Lee Larsen, Afton Burdett, Kenneth Burdett, Max
Hardy, Donna Mae Dekker, Leon Curtis, Von Jones, Lawana Simmons.
Sitting L-R: Kenneth Kinner and Ronald Burdett
'Summer Fun at Pineview Reservoir.' Source: The Utah Eagle, October 1953
Kenneth C. Burdett dedicated his life to the Utah School for the Deaf. He worked at the Utah School for the Deaf for four decades, from 1934 to 1974, and spent an additional fifty-two years as a student, boy's supervisor, head basketball coach, athletic director, teacher, printing instructor, and curriculum coordinator. Kenneth was also a member of the Utah Association for the Deaf, the National Fraternal Society of the Deaf, and the Golden Spike Athletic Club of the Deaf (The Ogden Standard-Examiner, May 23, 1974). His unwavering support for student athletics, deep affection for his students, and inspiring leadership that encouraged each student's personal growth earned him widespread respect. Kenneth was a highly regarded teacher and coach who inspired young people and all those he encountered (Dr. Robert Sanderson and Valerie Kinney, personal communication, July 8, 2011).
Kenneth C. Burdett
Holiday Celebrations at
the Utah School for the Deaf
the Utah School for the Deaf
Holidays were important social events at the Utah School for the Deaf in its early years. The school served and entertained the students during their Thanksgiving stay. They usually only returned home for the Christmas holidays (Roberts, 1994; Evans, 1999). In 1913, the school allowed students who lived nearby to return home for the Thanksgiving holiday weekend (Evans, 1999).
The school also observed Arbor Day, Valentine's Day, Easter, and other holidays. The teachers prepared the Arbor Day activities, Valentine's socials, and other holiday events (Roberts, 1994). The social events took place in Salt Lake City during the school year. USD Superintendent Frank Metcalf and teachers sponsored a masquerade dance and other events. He also frequently sponsored social events in the spring and fall, where teachers and older students socialized. People who attended these social gatherings formed several marriages (Roberts, 1994).
Given that the majority of students resided on campus, birthday celebrations took on a special significance. The school would organize birthday parties for both teachers and students, fostering a sense of community and familial bonds. Additionally, the Metcalf children would often extend invitations to many students for their birthday parties, further enhancing the familial atmosphere (Roberts, 1994).
The school also observed Arbor Day, Valentine's Day, Easter, and other holidays. The teachers prepared the Arbor Day activities, Valentine's socials, and other holiday events (Roberts, 1994). The social events took place in Salt Lake City during the school year. USD Superintendent Frank Metcalf and teachers sponsored a masquerade dance and other events. He also frequently sponsored social events in the spring and fall, where teachers and older students socialized. People who attended these social gatherings formed several marriages (Roberts, 1994).
Given that the majority of students resided on campus, birthday celebrations took on a special significance. The school would organize birthday parties for both teachers and students, fostering a sense of community and familial bonds. Additionally, the Metcalf children would often extend invitations to many students for their birthday parties, further enhancing the familial atmosphere (Roberts, 1994).
Students at the Utah School for the Deaf in the spring of 1945. They are going on the annual spring hike
School Events and Trips
The Utah School for the Deaf in Salt Lake City allowed its students to participate in various events and field trips. For instance, the students visited the circus before and after the school moved to Ogden. They also enjoyed winter activities such as sledding and ice skating. When the school was located in Salt Lake City, the students would go sledding on the hills between the school and the future site of the Utah Capitol. After the school moved to Ogden, the gardener kept an ice rink on campus for most of the years so that the students could enjoy ice skating (Robert, 1994).
John Beck, a co-founder of the Utah School for the Deaf, owned Beck's Hot Springs, located north of Salt Lake City. John Beck's three sons—Joseph, John A., and Jacob—and other older boys used to frequent Beck's Hot Springs before the school relocated to Ogden (Robert, 1994).
Later on, the majority of Deaf students would return home for holidays such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Easter (Robert, 1994).
John Beck, a co-founder of the Utah School for the Deaf, owned Beck's Hot Springs, located north of Salt Lake City. John Beck's three sons—Joseph, John A., and Jacob—and other older boys used to frequent Beck's Hot Springs before the school relocated to Ogden (Robert, 1994).
Later on, the majority of Deaf students would return home for holidays such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Easter (Robert, 1994).
John Beck. Source: The National Cyclopedia of American Biography
Beck’s Hot Springs, 1908. Source: 2001 Utah State Historical Society
Jacob Beck, 1921
The students and staff occasionally went on nature walks and shopping trips together. These trips were beneficial as they provided opportunities for education and a change of scenery for everyone involved (Roberts, 1994).
During one of these trips, the students had the chance to meet Dr. James Talmage, a professor at the University of Utah. Dr. Talmage's blind brother, Albert Talmage, was a student at the Utah School for the Blind. Due to his previous affiliation with the institution when it was still part of the University of Utah, Dr. Talmage was already familiar with several students from the school (Robert, 1994).
During one of these trips, the students had the chance to meet Dr. James Talmage, a professor at the University of Utah. Dr. Talmage's blind brother, Albert Talmage, was a student at the Utah School for the Blind. Due to his previous affiliation with the institution when it was still part of the University of Utah, Dr. Talmage was already familiar with several students from the school (Robert, 1994).
Dr. James Talmage. Source deseretnews.com
According to the Utah Eagle, the journey took place in Ogden Canyon between 1900 and 1901.
"Some of the large boys went up to the mouth of Ogden Canyon with Mr. Crandall the other day. They wanted to look at the bridge which was recently destroyed by a rock falling from the immense cliff at the mouth of the canyon. They met Dr. Talmage, formerly president of the University of Utah. He was to examine the tunnel, the cliff, the fissure and the water pipe and report to the electric Power Plant Company regarding the cause of the break and the proper course to pursue to repair the damage done. Dr. Talmage is a learned geologist and a very prominent scientist (p. 70)."
Several influential figures visited the Utah School for the Deaf and formed friendships with the students. One notable visitor was David O. McKay, who came to the school while he was teaching at Weber Stake Academy and serving in the Utah State Legislature. He later went on to be elected as the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Robert, 1994).
"Some of the large boys went up to the mouth of Ogden Canyon with Mr. Crandall the other day. They wanted to look at the bridge which was recently destroyed by a rock falling from the immense cliff at the mouth of the canyon. They met Dr. Talmage, formerly president of the University of Utah. He was to examine the tunnel, the cliff, the fissure and the water pipe and report to the electric Power Plant Company regarding the cause of the break and the proper course to pursue to repair the damage done. Dr. Talmage is a learned geologist and a very prominent scientist (p. 70)."
Several influential figures visited the Utah School for the Deaf and formed friendships with the students. One notable visitor was David O. McKay, who came to the school while he was teaching at Weber Stake Academy and serving in the Utah State Legislature. He later went on to be elected as the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Robert, 1994).
David O. McKay. Source: eligion.fandom.com
Maud May Babcock was the University of Utah's first female faculty member and the founder of the Departments of Speech, Physical Education, and University Theater. She also served on the Board of Trustees for the Utah School for the Deaf for twenty-two years, including twelve years as president. In recognition of her contributions, the Babcock Theater, which is the first college dramatic club in the United States, was named in her honor. Maud joined the University of Utah in 1892 and taught there for forty-six years. Additionally, she made history as the first woman to serve as a Senate chaplain in Utah (Toone, Deseret News, May 7, 2014; Maud May Babcock, Wikipedia, December 28, 2018).
One of Maud May Babcock's most significant contributions was her advocacy for the Deaf community in Utah. While serving on the Board of Trustees for the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind, she traveled to the East in 1904 to study the communication methods used in other schools for the deaf. Her findings led to successful advocacy for additional funding to support new programs at the Utah School for the Deaf. Maud demonstrated her commitment by regularly visiting the school to share her experiences with the students (Robert, 1994; Maud May Babcock – Wikipedia). At the Utah Association of the Deaf Convention in 1915, Maud shared her unique and enlightening experiences from her visits to Deaf schools in France and Germany, providing a global perspective to the Utah Deaf community (The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963).
One of Maud May Babcock's most significant contributions was her advocacy for the Deaf community in Utah. While serving on the Board of Trustees for the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind, she traveled to the East in 1904 to study the communication methods used in other schools for the deaf. Her findings led to successful advocacy for additional funding to support new programs at the Utah School for the Deaf. Maud demonstrated her commitment by regularly visiting the school to share her experiences with the students (Robert, 1994; Maud May Babcock – Wikipedia). At the Utah Association of the Deaf Convention in 1915, Maud shared her unique and enlightening experiences from her visits to Deaf schools in France and Germany, providing a global perspective to the Utah Deaf community (The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963).
Maud May Babcock. Source: utahwomenshistory.org
Edwin A. Stratford served as the chairman of the Board of Trustees for the Utah School for the Deaf for several years. He continued in this role after the school separated from the University of Utah and relocated to Ogden, Utah. In 1896, he also served as the superintendent of the students' Sunday School for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints at the school in Ogden.
In conclusion, these four individuals, along with others, made significant contributions to the students at the Utah School for the Deaf and helped raise awareness of the institution among their peers and members of the Utah State Legislature (Robert, 1994).
In conclusion, these four individuals, along with others, made significant contributions to the students at the Utah School for the Deaf and helped raise awareness of the institution among their peers and members of the Utah State Legislature (Robert, 1994).
Edwin A. Stratford. Source: Black’s Family History
Legislative Leadership Opportunity
During Utah's territorial period, students at the Utah School for the Deaf had the opportunity to serve as legislative leaders. The school trained them to lobby politicians and request funding for their educational pursuits. Even after Utah became a state in 1896, the students continued collaborating with legislators to secure funding for the school and its programs. Teachers organized an "exhibition" on the school campus every year to showcase the students' achievements and invite legislators to witness their abilities. This event gave the students an opportunity to interact with individuals and showcase their accomplishments. They were able to explain to legislators the importance of the school program. Ultimately, this program boosted the students' self-confidence (Roberts, 1994).
In January 1896, the state legislature organized an exhibition where students displayed their educational skills, performed songs, and recited poems and readings. The Utah State Capitol building provided a tour for the students, educating them about the legislative process and its implementation. They also had meetings with several government officials. As a result, the students gained an understanding of the functions of the government, including the legislative (House and Senate), executive (Governor), and judicial (Courts) branches, among other things. During the tour, the students learned about things their parents might not have known (Roberts, 1994). Many of them rose to leadership positions within the state because of the legislative leadership skills they acquired in school. In addition, they contributed their leadership skills to the Utah Association of the Deaf, covering a wide range of advocacy issues, such as auto insurance, traffic safety, anti-peddlers, education, early intervention, employment, rehabilitation services, interpreting services, health care, technology, telecommunications, youth leadership, and various other issues.
In January 1896, the state legislature organized an exhibition where students displayed their educational skills, performed songs, and recited poems and readings. The Utah State Capitol building provided a tour for the students, educating them about the legislative process and its implementation. They also had meetings with several government officials. As a result, the students gained an understanding of the functions of the government, including the legislative (House and Senate), executive (Governor), and judicial (Courts) branches, among other things. During the tour, the students learned about things their parents might not have known (Roberts, 1994). Many of them rose to leadership positions within the state because of the legislative leadership skills they acquired in school. In addition, they contributed their leadership skills to the Utah Association of the Deaf, covering a wide range of advocacy issues, such as auto insurance, traffic safety, anti-peddlers, education, early intervention, employment, rehabilitation services, interpreting services, health care, technology, telecommunications, youth leadership, and various other issues.
The Utah School for the Deaf Senior trip to the Utah State Capitol in 1954
Top: Kenneth Kinner. L-R: Shanna Christiansen, Donna Mae Dekker,
Eleanor Kay Kinner, Clara Bosshardt and Carol MacTee
The Utah Association of the Deaf
Was Formed in 1909
Was Formed in 1909
Elizabeth DeLong. Source: The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963
Elizabeth DeLong, First Female President
of the Utah Association of the Deaf
of the Utah Association of the Deaf
Following the establishment of the National Association of the Deaf in 1880, Utah became one of several state chapter associations across the country. In 1909, Elizabeth Delong, commonly known as "Libbie," played a vital role in proposing the formation of the Utah Association of the Deaf. The main objective of this organization was to address the social and welfare needs of alums from the Utah School for the Deaf. Superintendent Frank M. Driggs of the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind approved her proposal, fostering confidence in the association's ability to advocate for and lead the Utah Deaf community. Libbie's efforts led her to be elected as the first Deaf female president of the association (Evans, 1999). Her victory was a significant milestone, as she became the first Deaf female president of the Utah Association of the Deaf and the first Deaf female president of a National Association of the Deaf (NAD) state chapter in the nation, as detailed in the following section.
The following day, on June 11, 1909, at the Utah Association of the Deaf Convention, Elizabeth DeLong ran for president and won the election by thirty-nine votes. She defeated two male Deaf candidates, Paul Mark and Melville J. Matheis, who each received only two votes (The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963). As a result, Libbie made history by defeating two male Deaf candidates and becoming the first female Deaf president of the Utah Association of the Deaf, an advocacy organization for accessibility and civil rights in the Utah Deaf community. Additionally, she became the first female Deaf president of any state chapter association of the National Association of the Deaf in the United States. Despite societal barriers as a Deaf woman, her victory over two Deaf male candidates in the election was a significant achievement, as women did not gain the right to vote until the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, and the National Association of the Deaf did not allow Deaf women members to vote in their elections until 1964. Libbie's remarkable accomplishment was a testament to her perseverance, likely inspired by her involvement in Gallaudet's O.W.L.S. presidential election in 1901, a secret society for women now known as Phi Kappa Zeta. Her active participation in Utah's early suffrage movement also fueled her educational, political, and spiritual aspirations.
Libbie served as president of the Utah Association of the Deaf from 1909 to 1915, marking a significant milestone in the organization's history. At the end of her second term as president in 1915, she delivered a powerful speech that marked a turning point in the women's suffrage movement (The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963). Growing up in Utah, where women gained the right to vote on February 14, 1870, Libbie passionately advocated for women's suffrage in her 1915 speech. Her commitment to promoting women's rights demonstrated her dedication and had a profound and lasting impact on the movement, inspiring many and continuing to empower us today.
As a trailblazer for Deaf women in leadership, Libbie made significant contributions to both the Utah Deaf community and the women's rights movement. Her strong support for women's suffrage continues to shape our society today. Additionally, her passion serves as a source of inspiration and empowerment, acting as a beacon of hope and determination for future generations.
The following day, on June 11, 1909, at the Utah Association of the Deaf Convention, Elizabeth DeLong ran for president and won the election by thirty-nine votes. She defeated two male Deaf candidates, Paul Mark and Melville J. Matheis, who each received only two votes (The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963). As a result, Libbie made history by defeating two male Deaf candidates and becoming the first female Deaf president of the Utah Association of the Deaf, an advocacy organization for accessibility and civil rights in the Utah Deaf community. Additionally, she became the first female Deaf president of any state chapter association of the National Association of the Deaf in the United States. Despite societal barriers as a Deaf woman, her victory over two Deaf male candidates in the election was a significant achievement, as women did not gain the right to vote until the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, and the National Association of the Deaf did not allow Deaf women members to vote in their elections until 1964. Libbie's remarkable accomplishment was a testament to her perseverance, likely inspired by her involvement in Gallaudet's O.W.L.S. presidential election in 1901, a secret society for women now known as Phi Kappa Zeta. Her active participation in Utah's early suffrage movement also fueled her educational, political, and spiritual aspirations.
Libbie served as president of the Utah Association of the Deaf from 1909 to 1915, marking a significant milestone in the organization's history. At the end of her second term as president in 1915, she delivered a powerful speech that marked a turning point in the women's suffrage movement (The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963). Growing up in Utah, where women gained the right to vote on February 14, 1870, Libbie passionately advocated for women's suffrage in her 1915 speech. Her commitment to promoting women's rights demonstrated her dedication and had a profound and lasting impact on the movement, inspiring many and continuing to empower us today.
As a trailblazer for Deaf women in leadership, Libbie made significant contributions to both the Utah Deaf community and the women's rights movement. Her strong support for women's suffrage continues to shape our society today. Additionally, her passion serves as a source of inspiration and empowerment, acting as a beacon of hope and determination for future generations.
The 1909 Utah Association of the Deaf Officers. Source: J. Willard Marriott Library of the University of Utah
The Advocacy of the
Utah Association of the Deaf
Utah Association of the Deaf
The Utah Association for the Deaf, founded in 1909, is one of the oldest advocacy organizations for the Deaf community in the United States and has made significant contributions to the Deaf community in Utah. Since its founding, the UAD has been a leading voice, advocating for, protecting, and promoting the human, civil, accessibility, and linguistic rights of Deaf individuals in various areas. The advocacy efforts of the UAD have led to significant changes in various areas, such as auto insurance, traffic safety, telecommunications, interpreters, education, early interventions, employment, and rehabilitation services. One of the association's major achievements is its commitment to establishing the Robert G. Sanderson Community Center of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing, which has become a thriving hub for community activities. Additionally, the UAD played a crucial role in supporting the establishment of the Jean Massieu School of the Deaf, which provides educational opportunities for Deaf children and ensures their access to quality education. The association also expanded its interpreting services and training, and its commitment to professional standards was evident in its successful advocacy for enacting state certification statutes in 1994. The UAD has championed improved accessible technology, including TTY, closed captions, video relay services, and video remote interpreting. Lastly, the association established the Deaf Education Program at Utah State University, initially emphasizing Total Communication before shifting to an ASL/English bilingual program.
Moreover, Utah made history by becoming the first state in the nation to replace the term "Hearing Impaired" with "Deaf and Hard of Hearing" in state law. This change was enacted through Utah House Bill 60, which amended the Utah State Code on March 17, 2017. This significant milestone reflects the advocacy efforts of the Utah Association of the Deaf. The Deaf community perceives the term "hearing impaired" as negative and often offensive, as it suggests a broken condition. This label tends to emphasize the limitations of Deaf individuals rather than celebrating their abilities. The Deaf community values its unique culture, which includes its own language, traditions, values, and norms. Embracing this change empowers and inspires the Deaf community in Utah and supports the broader movement for disability rights.
Today, the Utah Association of the Deaf plays a crucial role in advocating for the rights and needs of the Deaf community in Utah. The UAD serves as a valuable resource for education, support, and community engagement while promoting awareness and understanding among a diverse population that includes Deaf, Hard of Hearing, DeafBlind, DeafDisabled, Late Deafened individuals, Deaf LGBTQIA+ members, Deaf People of Color, and womxn. The UAD is dedicated to empowering individuals, fostering connections, and enhancing the quality of life for Deaf individuals across the state through various programs and events. Additionally, the UAD collaborates with different organizations and local governments to ensure that Deaf voices are heard and represented. The UAD also advocates for human rights and equity within society, and our ongoing efforts provide hope for the future of the Deaf community.
Moreover, Utah made history by becoming the first state in the nation to replace the term "Hearing Impaired" with "Deaf and Hard of Hearing" in state law. This change was enacted through Utah House Bill 60, which amended the Utah State Code on March 17, 2017. This significant milestone reflects the advocacy efforts of the Utah Association of the Deaf. The Deaf community perceives the term "hearing impaired" as negative and often offensive, as it suggests a broken condition. This label tends to emphasize the limitations of Deaf individuals rather than celebrating their abilities. The Deaf community values its unique culture, which includes its own language, traditions, values, and norms. Embracing this change empowers and inspires the Deaf community in Utah and supports the broader movement for disability rights.
Today, the Utah Association of the Deaf plays a crucial role in advocating for the rights and needs of the Deaf community in Utah. The UAD serves as a valuable resource for education, support, and community engagement while promoting awareness and understanding among a diverse population that includes Deaf, Hard of Hearing, DeafBlind, DeafDisabled, Late Deafened individuals, Deaf LGBTQIA+ members, Deaf People of Color, and womxn. The UAD is dedicated to empowering individuals, fostering connections, and enhancing the quality of life for Deaf individuals across the state through various programs and events. Additionally, the UAD collaborates with different organizations and local governments to ensure that Deaf voices are heard and represented. The UAD also advocates for human rights and equity within society, and our ongoing efforts provide hope for the future of the Deaf community.
Accreditation Visiting Team Report of the
Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind
Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind
In 2010, the Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind (USDB) underwent an evaluation of their services by the Accreditation Visiting Team during Steven Noyce's tenure as superintendent. According to the Accreditation Visiting Team Report, many students living in the dormitory/cottage facilities experienced loneliness despite the school's efforts to create a homelike atmosphere. The report states that students deeply felt the loss of their home and family experiences. As a result, families and students in Utah did not want to receive assistance in a residential setting. The USDB services changed to suit new national perspectives during the special education reform in the 1970s. With the passage of Public Law 94-142, more families now have access to educational resources closer to home (The Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind Accreditation Visiting Team Report, May 10–11, 2010, p. 4).
Steven W. Noyce. Source: Twitter
Alums of the Utah School for the Deaf have different experiences and perspectives that contract with the Accreditation Visiting Team Report. In the 1976 and 1984 Alumni Reunion Booklets, they talked about how happy and successful they were at adjusting to life at the Ogden residential campus. They improved at managing their time by doing different things over the weekend. They remember good times at school because they have happy memories of it (First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni Booklet, 1976; A Century of Memories: Utah School for the Deaf 100th Year Anniversary Alumni Reunion Booklet, 1984).
The authors of the book 'A Journey Into the Deaf-World' have affirmed the past positive experiences of USD students living on campus. They noted that Deaf children who attended a residential school developed strong self-esteem due to their exposure to Deaf role models, staff, older Deaf students, and alums. It's worth considering whether Mr. Noyce, a former student of Dr. Grant B. Bitter's Oral Training Program at the University of Utah in the early 1970s, influenced the Accreditation Visiting Team's view. His perspective, advocating for mainstreaming Deaf or hard-of-hearing students in general education classes, could have skewed the report. Regrettably, USD did not consult with alums before the accreditation panel meeting to gather their insights.
The Utah Association for the Deaf hosted its 33rd Biennial Convention in 1989, featuring a 16-mm film titled 'A History of the Utah School for the Deaf: 1940–1965'. This film, along with the extensive video documentation by Kenneth C. Burdett, a 1929 graduate and teacher at the Utah School for the Deaf, provides a comprehensive visual record of Deaf students' experiences on the school's campus over the years. The videos capture class trips, graduations, and other significant campus events, offering a unique glimpse into the school's history.
The authors of the book 'A Journey Into the Deaf-World' have affirmed the past positive experiences of USD students living on campus. They noted that Deaf children who attended a residential school developed strong self-esteem due to their exposure to Deaf role models, staff, older Deaf students, and alums. It's worth considering whether Mr. Noyce, a former student of Dr. Grant B. Bitter's Oral Training Program at the University of Utah in the early 1970s, influenced the Accreditation Visiting Team's view. His perspective, advocating for mainstreaming Deaf or hard-of-hearing students in general education classes, could have skewed the report. Regrettably, USD did not consult with alums before the accreditation panel meeting to gather their insights.
The Utah Association for the Deaf hosted its 33rd Biennial Convention in 1989, featuring a 16-mm film titled 'A History of the Utah School for the Deaf: 1940–1965'. This film, along with the extensive video documentation by Kenneth C. Burdett, a 1929 graduate and teacher at the Utah School for the Deaf, provides a comprehensive visual record of Deaf students' experiences on the school's campus over the years. The videos capture class trips, graduations, and other significant campus events, offering a unique glimpse into the school's history.
W. David Mortensen
In 1990, W. David Mortensen, also known as Dave, then President of the Utah Association for the Deaf and a 1949 graduate of the Utah School for the Deaf, shared his article in the UAD Bulletin of June 1990. He shared his fond memories and benefits of attending a school that inclusively served the needs of Deaf students. He believed that sending a Deaf child to such a school never harmed them and provided them with education, socialization, leadership training, discipline, drama, dance, public speaking, sports, entertainment, and more. Those were very, very happy times, he said. Dave acknowledged that times have changed and questioned if they have changed for the better or worse. He disagreed that mainstreaming was the answer despite it being considered a trend in modern times. He suggested that people speak to those who have spent time away from home at a deaf school and ask if they felt it was a mistake. Dave asked, "Have times changed for the better or worse?" and "Is mainstreaming the answer?" He answered that he believed it was not the solution. He emphasized the crucial importance of consulting with Deaf residential school alums before making the school placement decision (Mortensen, UAD Bulletin, June 1990, p. 1). The sentiments expressed by the attendees were diverse, reflecting a range of perspectives on the past, present, and future of Deaf education. Dave's response highlighted the urgency of the Utah School for the Deaf consulting with alums for guidance on school placement before meeting with the accreditation team for review.
Utah Association for the Deaf President W. David Mortensen's President's Message. Source: UAD Bulletin, June 1990, p. 1
As the author of this website, I trust that Kenneth C. Burdett's film will provide you with a deeper understanding of life on their campus. I assure you that it wasn't as terrible as you might have imagined. If you're interested, you can watch "Utah School for the Deaf Video, 1940–1965" on the Utah Deaf Film webpage of this website.
Deaf students at the Utah School for the Deaf, Ogden, Utah in the Fall of 1949
The Effect of Oral and Mainstreaming
Movements on the Utah School for the Deaf
Movements on the Utah School for the Deaf
Under the leadership of Dr. Grant B. Bitter, a fearless advocate for oral and mainstream education, Utah's groundbreaking movement to mainstream all Deaf children began in the 1960s. Dr. Bitter's efforts earned him the title of 'Father of Mainstreaming.' This movement was in stark contrast to the historical significance of Dr. Martha Hughes Cannon, America's first female state senator and a member of the Board of Trustees of the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind, who in 1896, spearheaded a proposal for the 'Act Providing for Compulsory Education of Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Citizens,' which mandated attendance at the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind in Ogden, Utah (Martha Hughes Cannon, Wikipedia, April 20, 2024). Her legislation led to its successful passage in 1896 and marked a turning point in the education of Deaf and Blind children. However, Dr. Bitter advocated for mainstreaming all Deaf children, paving the way for widespread acceptance of this approach in 1975 with the passage of Public Law 94-142, now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Dr. Grant B. Bitter. Source: The Utah Eagle, October 1962
His daughter, Colleen, was born Deaf in 1954, which was another reason for his dedication to the advancement of both oral and mainstream education. Dr. Bitter supported the idea of mainstreaming for all Deaf and hard-of-hearing children for two main reasons: his own Deaf daughter and his internship experience at the Lexington School for the Deaf. During his master's degree studies, he interned at Lexington School for the Deaf, an oral school, and was shocked to see young children having to leave their parents for a week, often crying and screaming. His role as a father of a Deaf child, as well as his experience, inspired him to advocate for mainstreaming, allowing Deaf children to attend local public schools at home (Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987).
Martha Hughes Cannon. Source: Utah State Historical Society, Deseret News Archives
In the 1970s, Dr. Stephen C. Baldwin, a Deaf educator who served as the Total Communication Division Curriculum Coordinator at the Utah School for the Deaf, shared his observations of Dr. Bitter. Dr. Bitter, a firm advocate of oral and mainstream philosophy, was particularly vocal about his beliefs. His influence, as Dr. Baldwin noted, was profound. Dr. Bitter was a hard-core oralist and one of the top figures in oral education, and no one was more persistent than him in promoting an oral and mainstream approach. Dr. Baldwin also recalled how Dr. Bitter criticized the popular use of sign language, arguing that it hindered the development of oral skills and enrollment in residential settings, which he believed isolated Deaf individuals from mainstream society (Baldwin, 1990).
Dr. Stephen C. Baldwin
Dr. Bitter's advocacy for the oral and mainstreaming movements sparked a long-standing feud with the Utah Association for the Deaf, a group comprised mainly of graduates from the Utah School for the Deaf, particularly Dr. Robert G. Sanderson, a prominent Deaf community leader in Utah who became Deaf at the age of 11 and was a staunch supporter of sign language and state schools for the deaf. The intense animosity between these two giants was due to the ongoing dispute over oral and sign language in Utah's Deaf educational system.
Dr. Robert G. Sanderson. Source: Gallaudet University Archives
Dr. Bitter has had an extensive career in teaching and curriculum development. His journey began at the Extension Division of the Utah School for the Deaf in Salt Lake City, Utah, where he worked as a teacher and curriculum coordinator. His passion for education led him to become a director and professor in the Teacher Preparation Program, where he focused primarily on oral education under the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah. Dr. Bitter also served as the coordinator of the Deaf Seminary Program under The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Utah.
Dr. Bitter believed strongly in oralism, which is the belief that Deaf individuals should learn to speak. He was so committed to this idea that he included it in his teaching methods for the Teacher Preparation Program at the University of Utah. To support this cause, he founded the Oral Deaf Association of Utah (ODAU) in 1970 and the Utah Registry of Oral Interpreters in 1981 (Bitter, Summary Report for Tenure, 1985; Bitter, Utah's Hearing-Impaired Children... At High Risk, 1986).
In the fall of 1962, the Utah Deaf community was surprised by the revolutionary changes at the Utah School for the Deaf, which introduced the dual-track program, also commonly known as the "Y" system. The unexpected change had a profound impact on the education of Deaf children, evoking a sense of empathy within the community. The Utah Association of the Deaf, which advocated for sign language, was unaware that the Utah Council for the Deaf had spearheaded the change, advocating for speech-based instruction and successfully pushing for its implementation at the Utah School for the Deaf in Ogden, Utah (The UAD Bulletin, Fall-Winter 1962). It is believed that Dr. Bitter was a member of this council. The dual-track program provided an oral program in one department and a simultaneous communication program in another department, which was later replaced by a combined system. However, the dual-track policy mandated that all Deaf children begin with the oral program (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Gannon, 1981). The Utah State Board of Education, a key player in educational policy, approved this policy reform on June 14, 1962, with endorsement from the Special Study Committee on Deaf Education (The Ogden Standard-Examiner, June 14, 1962; Wight, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, October 19, 1970). The newly hired superintendent, Robert W. Tegeder, accepted the parents' proposals and initiated changes to the school system (The UAD Bulletin, Fall-Winter, 1962; Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987). This new program not only affected the lives of Deaf children but also their families.
The "Y" system, part of the dual-track program, imposed significant restrictions and challenges on students and their families. This system separated learning into two distinct channels: the oral department, which focused on speech, lipreading, amplified sound, and reading, and the simultaneous communication department, which emphasized instruction through the manual alphabet, signs, speech, and reading. Initially, all Deaf children were required to enroll in the oral program for the first six years of their schooling (The Utah Eagle, February 1968). Following this period, a committee would assess each child's progress and determine their placement (The Utah Eagle, February 1968). The "Y" system favored the oral mechanism over the sign language approach, limiting families' choices in the school system. The school's preference for the oral mechanism was based on the belief that speech was crucial for Deaf children's integration into the hearing world. Parents and Deaf students did not have the freedom to choose the program until the child entered 6th or 7th grade, at which point they could either continue in the oral department or transition to the simultaneous communication department (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Dr. Grant B. Bitter's Paper, 1970s; Deanne Kinner Montgomery, personal communication, May 4, 2024).
The placement of transferred students in the signing program labeled them as "oral failures" (The UAD Bulletin, Spring 1965). There was a discussion about the age at which students can transfer to a simultaneous communication program. According to the "First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni Program Book, 1976," this would be when they were 10–12 years old or entered sixth grade. However, according to the Utah Eagle's February 1968 issue, students must remain in the oral program for the first six years of school, which may be in the 6th or 7th grade. So, I am using between the 6th and 7th grades, rather than based on their age. Their birth date, progression, and other factors could determine their placement.
As a result of the "Y" system's implementation, the Utah School for the Deaf had to undergo significant changes. The school had to hire more oral teachers and establish speech as the primary mode of communication, shifting the focus of the learning environment. The dual-track program initially placed all elementary school students in the oral department, transferring them to the simultaneous communication department only if they failed in the oral program. This approach was based on the belief that early development of oral skills was crucial for Deaf students, with sign language learning considered a secondary focus. The change in focus and the increased hiring of oral teachers had a significant impact on the school's learning environment, altering its dynamics and atmosphere (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Deanne Kinner Montgomery, personal communication, May 4, 2024).
The dual-track program shifted its approach for prospective teachers from sign language to the oral method, prioritizing speech as the primary mode of communication for Deaf students in classrooms. The administrators at the Utah School for the Deaf considered the dual-track program to be more advantageous than a single-track system (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Wight, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, October 19, 1970). According to them, the oral program required a "pure oral mindset." In 1968, the Utah School for the Deaf was one of the few residential schools in the country to offer an exclusively oral program for elementary students (The Utah Eagle, February 1968). By 1973, the Utah School for the Deaf was the only school in the United States that provided parents and Deaf students with both methods of communication through the dual-track system (Laflamme, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, September 5, 1973).
On June 14, 1962, the Utah State Board of Education approved the dual-track program, which led to the division of the Ogden campus into two parts during the summer break (The Ogden Standard-Examiner, June 14, 1962). The dual-track program also divided Ogden's residential campus into an oral department and a simultaneous communication department, each with its own classrooms, dining halls, dormitory facilities, recess periods, and extracurricular activities. The school prohibited interaction between oral and sign language students (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Wight, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, October 19, 1970). However, due to low student enrollment in competitive sports, the athletic program combined both departments. The team had oral and sign language coaches to communicate with their respective students (The Utah Eagle, February 1968). This unique situation highlights the challenges and complexities of implementing the dual-track program.
During the 1962–63 school year, some changes were made at the Utah School for the Deaf without informing the Deaf students. When the students arrived at school in August, they were surprised to find out about the changes. These changes caused a lot of anger among older students, as well as many disagreements between veteran teachers and the Utah Deaf community. Barbara Schell Bass, a long-serving Deaf teacher at the Utah School for the Deaf, said that the students' physical and methodological separation had painful consequences. Many teachers lost their friendships due to philosophical disagreements, classmates isolated themselves from each other, and administrators struggled to divide their loyalties (Bass, 1982).
The 1962 and 1969 protests were sparked by dissatisfaction with the dual-track program's "Y" segregation system, the separation of oral and sign language situations, and the school administration's dismissal of their outcry.
Dr. Bitter believed strongly in oralism, which is the belief that Deaf individuals should learn to speak. He was so committed to this idea that he included it in his teaching methods for the Teacher Preparation Program at the University of Utah. To support this cause, he founded the Oral Deaf Association of Utah (ODAU) in 1970 and the Utah Registry of Oral Interpreters in 1981 (Bitter, Summary Report for Tenure, 1985; Bitter, Utah's Hearing-Impaired Children... At High Risk, 1986).
In the fall of 1962, the Utah Deaf community was surprised by the revolutionary changes at the Utah School for the Deaf, which introduced the dual-track program, also commonly known as the "Y" system. The unexpected change had a profound impact on the education of Deaf children, evoking a sense of empathy within the community. The Utah Association of the Deaf, which advocated for sign language, was unaware that the Utah Council for the Deaf had spearheaded the change, advocating for speech-based instruction and successfully pushing for its implementation at the Utah School for the Deaf in Ogden, Utah (The UAD Bulletin, Fall-Winter 1962). It is believed that Dr. Bitter was a member of this council. The dual-track program provided an oral program in one department and a simultaneous communication program in another department, which was later replaced by a combined system. However, the dual-track policy mandated that all Deaf children begin with the oral program (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Gannon, 1981). The Utah State Board of Education, a key player in educational policy, approved this policy reform on June 14, 1962, with endorsement from the Special Study Committee on Deaf Education (The Ogden Standard-Examiner, June 14, 1962; Wight, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, October 19, 1970). The newly hired superintendent, Robert W. Tegeder, accepted the parents' proposals and initiated changes to the school system (The UAD Bulletin, Fall-Winter, 1962; Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987). This new program not only affected the lives of Deaf children but also their families.
The "Y" system, part of the dual-track program, imposed significant restrictions and challenges on students and their families. This system separated learning into two distinct channels: the oral department, which focused on speech, lipreading, amplified sound, and reading, and the simultaneous communication department, which emphasized instruction through the manual alphabet, signs, speech, and reading. Initially, all Deaf children were required to enroll in the oral program for the first six years of their schooling (The Utah Eagle, February 1968). Following this period, a committee would assess each child's progress and determine their placement (The Utah Eagle, February 1968). The "Y" system favored the oral mechanism over the sign language approach, limiting families' choices in the school system. The school's preference for the oral mechanism was based on the belief that speech was crucial for Deaf children's integration into the hearing world. Parents and Deaf students did not have the freedom to choose the program until the child entered 6th or 7th grade, at which point they could either continue in the oral department or transition to the simultaneous communication department (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Dr. Grant B. Bitter's Paper, 1970s; Deanne Kinner Montgomery, personal communication, May 4, 2024).
The placement of transferred students in the signing program labeled them as "oral failures" (The UAD Bulletin, Spring 1965). There was a discussion about the age at which students can transfer to a simultaneous communication program. According to the "First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni Program Book, 1976," this would be when they were 10–12 years old or entered sixth grade. However, according to the Utah Eagle's February 1968 issue, students must remain in the oral program for the first six years of school, which may be in the 6th or 7th grade. So, I am using between the 6th and 7th grades, rather than based on their age. Their birth date, progression, and other factors could determine their placement.
As a result of the "Y" system's implementation, the Utah School for the Deaf had to undergo significant changes. The school had to hire more oral teachers and establish speech as the primary mode of communication, shifting the focus of the learning environment. The dual-track program initially placed all elementary school students in the oral department, transferring them to the simultaneous communication department only if they failed in the oral program. This approach was based on the belief that early development of oral skills was crucial for Deaf students, with sign language learning considered a secondary focus. The change in focus and the increased hiring of oral teachers had a significant impact on the school's learning environment, altering its dynamics and atmosphere (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Deanne Kinner Montgomery, personal communication, May 4, 2024).
The dual-track program shifted its approach for prospective teachers from sign language to the oral method, prioritizing speech as the primary mode of communication for Deaf students in classrooms. The administrators at the Utah School for the Deaf considered the dual-track program to be more advantageous than a single-track system (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Wight, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, October 19, 1970). According to them, the oral program required a "pure oral mindset." In 1968, the Utah School for the Deaf was one of the few residential schools in the country to offer an exclusively oral program for elementary students (The Utah Eagle, February 1968). By 1973, the Utah School for the Deaf was the only school in the United States that provided parents and Deaf students with both methods of communication through the dual-track system (Laflamme, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, September 5, 1973).
On June 14, 1962, the Utah State Board of Education approved the dual-track program, which led to the division of the Ogden campus into two parts during the summer break (The Ogden Standard-Examiner, June 14, 1962). The dual-track program also divided Ogden's residential campus into an oral department and a simultaneous communication department, each with its own classrooms, dining halls, dormitory facilities, recess periods, and extracurricular activities. The school prohibited interaction between oral and sign language students (The Utah Eagle, February 1968; Wight, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, October 19, 1970). However, due to low student enrollment in competitive sports, the athletic program combined both departments. The team had oral and sign language coaches to communicate with their respective students (The Utah Eagle, February 1968). This unique situation highlights the challenges and complexities of implementing the dual-track program.
During the 1962–63 school year, some changes were made at the Utah School for the Deaf without informing the Deaf students. When the students arrived at school in August, they were surprised to find out about the changes. These changes caused a lot of anger among older students, as well as many disagreements between veteran teachers and the Utah Deaf community. Barbara Schell Bass, a long-serving Deaf teacher at the Utah School for the Deaf, said that the students' physical and methodological separation had painful consequences. Many teachers lost their friendships due to philosophical disagreements, classmates isolated themselves from each other, and administrators struggled to divide their loyalties (Bass, 1982).
The 1962 and 1969 protests were sparked by dissatisfaction with the dual-track program's "Y" segregation system, the separation of oral and sign language situations, and the school administration's dismissal of their outcry.
Dr. Robert G. Sanderson. Source: The UAD Bulletin, Winter 1965
Following the 1962 protest against social segregation between oral and sign language students on Ogden's residential campus, Dr. Grant B. Bitter, a steadfast advocate for oral and mainstream education, and his oral supporters suspected that the Utah Association of the Deaf had organized the student strike. The Utah State Board of Education conducted an investigation but found no evidence of any connection between the students and the Utah Association for the Deaf (Sanderson, The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963; Kenneth L. Kinner, personal communication, May 14, 2011). In the face of societal segregation, the simultaneous communication students demonstrated their unwavering determination and courage by staging their own protests.
Dr. Robert G. Sanderson, who served as the president of the Utah Association of the Deaf from 1960 to 1963, denied any involvement in a strike during his tenure. He maintained that the strike was a spontaneous reaction by students who felt that the conditions, restrictions, and personalities at the Utah School for the Deaf had become intolerable (Sanderson, The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963). In the Fall-Winter 1962 issue of the UAD Bulletin, the Utah Association of the Deaf expressed its support for a classroom test of the dual-track program at the Utah School for the Deaf. However, they openly opposed complete social isolation, interference with religious activities, crippling the sports program, and intense pressure on children in the oral program to comply with the "no signing" rule (UAD Bulletin, Fall-Winter 1962, p. 2). The dual-track program's implementation marked a dark chapter in the history of Deaf education in Utah.
Dr. Robert G. Sanderson, who served as the president of the Utah Association of the Deaf from 1960 to 1963, denied any involvement in a strike during his tenure. He maintained that the strike was a spontaneous reaction by students who felt that the conditions, restrictions, and personalities at the Utah School for the Deaf had become intolerable (Sanderson, The UAD Bulletin, Summer 1963). In the Fall-Winter 1962 issue of the UAD Bulletin, the Utah Association of the Deaf expressed its support for a classroom test of the dual-track program at the Utah School for the Deaf. However, they openly opposed complete social isolation, interference with religious activities, crippling the sports program, and intense pressure on children in the oral program to comply with the "no signing" rule (UAD Bulletin, Fall-Winter 1962, p. 2). The dual-track program's implementation marked a dark chapter in the history of Deaf education in Utah.
Dr. Jay J. Campbell. Source: UAD Bulletin, June 1973
Another round of students' acts of resistance during the 1969 walkout protest against the continued enforcement of "Y" social segregation in the dual-track program was a defining moment in history, echoing the 1962 student protest at the Utah School for the Deaf. Despite not achieving the desired results, they found new ways to voice their discontent. Some sign language students boldly crossed the oral department hallway, while others took the simultaneous communication department route. This act of defiance broke the "Y" system rule, which had designated these spaces as 'off-limits' in order to maintain a 'clean' communication environment. Students even confronted their oral teachers, accusing them of oppression and dominance (Raymond Monson, personal communication, November 9, 2010). For nearly a decade, the Utah Association for the Deaf, in collaboration with the Parent-Teacher-Student Association, comprised supportive parents who advocated for sign language and fought against the "Y" system. Despite years of dismissal and opposition, their unwavering determination and resilience in the face of social segregation are truly admirable.
Superintendent Robert W. Tegeder, when faced with a challenging situation, sought assistance from his boss, Dr. Jay J. Campbell. Dr. Campbell, the husband of a sign language interpreter and the Deputy Superintendent of the Utah State Office of Education had been a crucial ally of the Utah Deaf community. Motivated by his concern for the welfare of Deaf children, he took the initiative to create the two-track program, a new instrument system that replaces the "Y" system (First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni, 1976; Campbell, 1977; Dr. Jay J. Campbell, personal communication, July 1, 2007). His dedication and commitment to the cause are truly inspiring.
Superintendent Robert W. Tegeder, when faced with a challenging situation, sought assistance from his boss, Dr. Jay J. Campbell. Dr. Campbell, the husband of a sign language interpreter and the Deputy Superintendent of the Utah State Office of Education had been a crucial ally of the Utah Deaf community. Motivated by his concern for the welfare of Deaf children, he took the initiative to create the two-track program, a new instrument system that replaces the "Y" system (First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni, 1976; Campbell, 1977; Dr. Jay J. Campbell, personal communication, July 1, 2007). His dedication and commitment to the cause are truly inspiring.
Ned C. Wheeler
Ned C. Wheeler, who became Deaf at the age of 13 and graduated from the Utah School for the Deaf in 1933, was the chair of the USDB Governor's Advisory Council. He proposed the "two-track program" in response to various events, including Dr. Campbell's proposal, student strikes in 1962 and 1969, and opposition from the Parent Teacher Student Association to the "Y" system policy. On December 28, 1970, the Utah State Board of Education authorized a new policy, paving the way for the Utah School for the Deaf to operate a two-track program with choices, eliminating the "Y" system. This new program allowed parents to choose between oral and total communication methods of instruction for their Deaf child aged between 2 1/2 and 21, marking a significant shift in Deaf education (Kenneth L. Kinner, personal communication, May 14, 2011, Recommendations on Policy for the Utah School for the Deaf, 1970; Deseret News, December 29, 1970).
Students at the Utah School for the Deaf in the 1940s
However, while supervising the Utah School for the Deaf, Dr. Campbell noticed that parents were often unaware of their children's educational and communication options (Campbell, 1977). Despite the Utah State Board of Education releasing policies in 1970, 1977, and 1998, the Utah School for the Deaf's Communication Guidelines did not provide parents with a wide range of choices. This lack of clarity resulted in ineffective placement tactics due to the prevalent oral bias. On April 14, 1977, Dr. Campbell presented his 202-page study report concerning the Utah School for the Deaf at the Utah State Board of Education. He also sought to improve the school's education system through more equitable evaluation and placement methods. However, Dr. Bitter, a professor at the University of Utah at the time, vehemently opposed Dr. Campbell's research, accusing it of containing falsehoods and drawing unfounded conclusions about the University of Utah's Teacher Oral Training Program and educational programs across the state (G.B. Bitter, personal communication, March 6, 1978). The presentation was heated, with over 300 parents supporting the oral method and applauding Dr. Bitter and Peter Viahos, an Ogden attorney and father of a Deaf daughter, as they presented their arguments (The Ogden Standard-Examiner, April 15, 1977).
A group of parents, under the influence of Dr. Bitter, petitioned the Utah State Board of Education. They sought to suspend Dr. Campbell's comprehensive study, citing its inconclusive nature. Also, dissatisfied with his research findings, they demanded his termination (Dr. Jay J. Campbell, personal communication, July 1, 2007). The meeting was attended by approximately 300 parents and 50 to 60 Deaf individuals, including Ned C. Wheeler, W. David Mortensen, Lloyd Perkins, Dennis Platt, and Kenneth L. Kinner, among others.
Dr. Bitter, a spokesperson for the oral advocates, presented Dr. Campbell's boss, Dr. Walter D. Talbot, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, with three options:
Dr. Campbell's boss, Dr. Walter D. Talbot's response to Dr. Bitter's appeal sparked a firestorm of tension. The Deaf group fiercely opposed the State Board's decision to reassign Dr. Campbell within the Utah State Office of Education. Their dissatisfaction was intense, leading them to express their protest by stomping their feet on the floor. In his 1987 interview with the University of Utah, Dr. Bitter described the scene as highly emotional and chaotic, prompting him to consider leaving the room. Concerned about the escalating situation, Dr. Talbot asked the Deaf community members to leave the room (Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987). Disagreements still exist about what the Deaf people did during the meeting, as different versions of what happened differ.
The Utah State Board of Education accepted Dr. Campbell's report and supporting documentation. However, despite the controversy surrounding his analysis, which included data from independent researchers, they disregarded all of his recommendations (The Ogden Standard-Examiner, April 15, 1977). This decision had consequences, as Dr. Campbell's plan crumbled down, including a two-year study to improve education through fair assessment and placement procedures. His plan was buried and forgotten (Dr. Jay J. Campbell, personal communication, July 1, 2007).
The mental trend of the "Y" system in the two-track program, with prevalent oral bias, had a significant impact, restricting parental choices for their Deaf children's education and communication. In the 1970s, Dr. J. Jay Campbell aimed to provide fair information through the Parent Infant Program Orientation, but Dr. Bitter opposed his efforts. He argued that total communication lacked a relationship between sign and spoken language, viewing it as a gestural language. Dr. Bitter also questioned the quality of the supporting research (Campbell, 1977; Cummins, The Salt Lake Tribune, August 20, 1977; Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987).
For many years, the Parent Infant Program of the Utah School for the Deaf had a strong bias toward oral. It did not provide balanced information to parents of Deaf children about their educational and communication options. The Utah Deaf Education Core Group, a key advocate for the ASL/English bilingual safeguard, criticized this biased approach and challenged for unbiased and equal information. Finally, in 2010, Superintendent Steven W. Noyce of the Utah Schools for the Deaf and Blind, an oral advocate and former university student of Dr. Bitter, as well as a long-time teacher and school director, developed the Parent Infant Program Orientation to provide parents with fair and balanced information. However, the majority of Deaf children born to parents still had to choose an "either/or" selection between ASL/English bilingual (which replaced total communication) or listening and spoken language (which replaced oral) options for their children's education and communication, leading to the expansion of the listening and spoken program.
To sum up, Dr. Grant B. Bitter was a prominent figure in Utah's oralism and mainstreaming movement, which has significantly impacted Deaf education in Utah since 1962. Despite the new two-track program and the school's option guidelines, his efforts led to a decrease in the number of Deaf students attending Ogden's residential school, which also resulted in a decline in the quality of education. The mainstreaming approach gained popularity but left many alums heartbroken. Dr. Bitter held significant power as a parental figure and used parental influence and leverage to advocate for oralism, making it challenging for the Utah Association for the Deaf to oppose him. When the Teacher Training Program in the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah closed in 1986, he retired in 1987 (Bitter, A Summary Report for Tenure, March 15, 1985). Today, the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah offers a Specialization in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Program. While the curriculum includes American Sign Language classes, it still emphasizes Listening and Spoken Language more. This ongoing influence reflects the lasting impact that Dr. Bitter, who passed away in 2000, continues to have on Deaf education in Utah. If you want to learn more about the evolving mainstreaming movement, you can visit the 'Dr. Robert G. Sanderson's Mainstreaming Perspectives' webpage on this website.
A group of parents, under the influence of Dr. Bitter, petitioned the Utah State Board of Education. They sought to suspend Dr. Campbell's comprehensive study, citing its inconclusive nature. Also, dissatisfied with his research findings, they demanded his termination (Dr. Jay J. Campbell, personal communication, July 1, 2007). The meeting was attended by approximately 300 parents and 50 to 60 Deaf individuals, including Ned C. Wheeler, W. David Mortensen, Lloyd Perkins, Dennis Platt, and Kenneth L. Kinner, among others.
Dr. Bitter, a spokesperson for the oral advocates, presented Dr. Campbell's boss, Dr. Walter D. Talbot, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, with three options:
- Removing Dr. Campbell from his position;
- Assigning him to another position; or
- Requesting a grand jury investigation into the evidence demonstrating how oral Deaf individuals were intimidated by some of the state's programs (Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987).
Dr. Campbell's boss, Dr. Walter D. Talbot's response to Dr. Bitter's appeal sparked a firestorm of tension. The Deaf group fiercely opposed the State Board's decision to reassign Dr. Campbell within the Utah State Office of Education. Their dissatisfaction was intense, leading them to express their protest by stomping their feet on the floor. In his 1987 interview with the University of Utah, Dr. Bitter described the scene as highly emotional and chaotic, prompting him to consider leaving the room. Concerned about the escalating situation, Dr. Talbot asked the Deaf community members to leave the room (Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987). Disagreements still exist about what the Deaf people did during the meeting, as different versions of what happened differ.
The Utah State Board of Education accepted Dr. Campbell's report and supporting documentation. However, despite the controversy surrounding his analysis, which included data from independent researchers, they disregarded all of his recommendations (The Ogden Standard-Examiner, April 15, 1977). This decision had consequences, as Dr. Campbell's plan crumbled down, including a two-year study to improve education through fair assessment and placement procedures. His plan was buried and forgotten (Dr. Jay J. Campbell, personal communication, July 1, 2007).
The mental trend of the "Y" system in the two-track program, with prevalent oral bias, had a significant impact, restricting parental choices for their Deaf children's education and communication. In the 1970s, Dr. J. Jay Campbell aimed to provide fair information through the Parent Infant Program Orientation, but Dr. Bitter opposed his efforts. He argued that total communication lacked a relationship between sign and spoken language, viewing it as a gestural language. Dr. Bitter also questioned the quality of the supporting research (Campbell, 1977; Cummins, The Salt Lake Tribune, August 20, 1977; Bluhm, Grant Bitter: Everett L. Cooley Oral History Project, March 17, 1987).
For many years, the Parent Infant Program of the Utah School for the Deaf had a strong bias toward oral. It did not provide balanced information to parents of Deaf children about their educational and communication options. The Utah Deaf Education Core Group, a key advocate for the ASL/English bilingual safeguard, criticized this biased approach and challenged for unbiased and equal information. Finally, in 2010, Superintendent Steven W. Noyce of the Utah Schools for the Deaf and Blind, an oral advocate and former university student of Dr. Bitter, as well as a long-time teacher and school director, developed the Parent Infant Program Orientation to provide parents with fair and balanced information. However, the majority of Deaf children born to parents still had to choose an "either/or" selection between ASL/English bilingual (which replaced total communication) or listening and spoken language (which replaced oral) options for their children's education and communication, leading to the expansion of the listening and spoken program.
To sum up, Dr. Grant B. Bitter was a prominent figure in Utah's oralism and mainstreaming movement, which has significantly impacted Deaf education in Utah since 1962. Despite the new two-track program and the school's option guidelines, his efforts led to a decrease in the number of Deaf students attending Ogden's residential school, which also resulted in a decline in the quality of education. The mainstreaming approach gained popularity but left many alums heartbroken. Dr. Bitter held significant power as a parental figure and used parental influence and leverage to advocate for oralism, making it challenging for the Utah Association for the Deaf to oppose him. When the Teacher Training Program in the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah closed in 1986, he retired in 1987 (Bitter, A Summary Report for Tenure, March 15, 1985). Today, the Department of Special Education at the University of Utah offers a Specialization in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Program. While the curriculum includes American Sign Language classes, it still emphasizes Listening and Spoken Language more. This ongoing influence reflects the lasting impact that Dr. Bitter, who passed away in 2000, continues to have on Deaf education in Utah. If you want to learn more about the evolving mainstreaming movement, you can visit the 'Dr. Robert G. Sanderson's Mainstreaming Perspectives' webpage on this website.
The Implementation of the Hybrid Program
at the Utah School for the Deaf
at the Utah School for the Deaf
After over fifty years of oral advocacy group dominance, starting in 1962, at the Utah School for the Deaf, Michelle Tanner, Associate Superintendent of the Utah School for the Deaf, with the support of Joel Coleman, Superintendent of the Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind, achieved a significant milestone in 2016 by introducing the hybrid program, demonstrating significant progress. The hybrid program allows the ASL/English bilingual program and the listening and spoken language program to work together without bias, providing Deaf students with a more personalized educational placement. This program also eliminates the need for parents to make an 'either/or' choice between the two programs, a significant step towards providing unbiased and equal information.
Michelle Tanner, USD Assoc. Supt; Joel Coleman, USDB Superintendent; Carolyn Lasater, USB Assoc. Supt. Source: Twitter
The Establishment of ASL/English Bilingual Schools
and the Impact of Listening & Spoken Language
on Deaf Education
and the Impact of Listening & Spoken Language
on Deaf Education
In 1999, the Jean Massieu School of the Deaf (JMS) was established as a public charter school in Salt Lake City, Utah. The academic performance and educational structure of the Utah School for the Deaf were found to be unsatisfactory, which led to the creation of JMS. The new school aimed to provide a more supportive cultural, social, and linguistic environment for Deaf students, a mission it has been fulfilling with dedication and excellence. It was named after Jean Massieu, a French teacher who was Deaf, a fitting tribute to its commitment to the Deaf community.
Since its establishment, JMS has made significant progress in Deaf education. The school has successfully integrated Deaf culture and language into its curriculum, creating a supportive environment for its students. JMS demonstrates its commitment to student development through extracurricular activities, including athletics, drama, student government, and participation in the Junior National Association of the Deaf. These activities provide students with opportunities to develop leadership and social skills that benefit the Utah Deaf community.
Additionally, the Utah School for the Deaf expanded its program to include two ASL/English bilingual schools: the Kenneth C. Burdett School of the Deaf in Ogden and the Elizabeth DeLong School of the Deaf in Springville.
The Utah Deaf community demonstrates remarkable dedication and resilience as it navigates various challenges and embraces the opportunities brought about by changing dynamics. While mainstreaming, the use of cochlear implants, and a shift towards listening and spoken language may present obstacles, organizations such as the Utah Association of the Deaf, the Jean Massieu School for the Deaf, the Kenneth C. Burdett School for the Deaf, and the Elizabeth DeLong School for the Deaf are well-equipped to adapt to these trends and address the challenges. Regardless of the circumstances, the Utah Deaf community is committed to persisting and thriving, showcasing their determination and strength in the face of change.
Since its establishment, JMS has made significant progress in Deaf education. The school has successfully integrated Deaf culture and language into its curriculum, creating a supportive environment for its students. JMS demonstrates its commitment to student development through extracurricular activities, including athletics, drama, student government, and participation in the Junior National Association of the Deaf. These activities provide students with opportunities to develop leadership and social skills that benefit the Utah Deaf community.
Additionally, the Utah School for the Deaf expanded its program to include two ASL/English bilingual schools: the Kenneth C. Burdett School of the Deaf in Ogden and the Elizabeth DeLong School of the Deaf in Springville.
The Utah Deaf community demonstrates remarkable dedication and resilience as it navigates various challenges and embraces the opportunities brought about by changing dynamics. While mainstreaming, the use of cochlear implants, and a shift towards listening and spoken language may present obstacles, organizations such as the Utah Association of the Deaf, the Jean Massieu School for the Deaf, the Kenneth C. Burdett School for the Deaf, and the Elizabeth DeLong School for the Deaf are well-equipped to adapt to these trends and address the challenges. Regardless of the circumstances, the Utah Deaf community is committed to persisting and thriving, showcasing their determination and strength in the face of change.
Conclusion
Utah is home to a vibrant Deaf community that has been significantly influenced by the Utah School for the Deaf. This school has played a crucial role in the development of Deaf communities in both Ogden and Salt Lake City. Many students from the school went on to become future leaders within the community, showcasing the school’s commitment to fostering leadership and excellence.
Graduates from the Utah School for the Deaf joined the Utah Association of the Deaf, which was a strong advocate for civil rights and accessibility. This organization focused on important issues such as education, interpreting services, and access to technology. Today, their initiatives play a vital role in empowering the Deaf community in Utah and encouraging active participation in significant causes that benefit everyone. Ultimately, these efforts contribute to the growth and prosperity of the community.
Graduates from the Utah School for the Deaf joined the Utah Association of the Deaf, which was a strong advocate for civil rights and accessibility. This organization focused on important issues such as education, interpreting services, and access to technology. Today, their initiatives play a vital role in empowering the Deaf community in Utah and encouraging active participation in significant causes that benefit everyone. Ultimately, these efforts contribute to the growth and prosperity of the community.
Notes
Anne Leahy, personal communication, June 3, 2011.
Anne Leahy, personal communication, June 7, 2011.
Diane Williams, personal communication, 2007.
Doug Stringham, personal communication, June 2, 2011.
Kenneth L. Kinner, personal communication, 2006.
Kleda Quigley, personal communication, April 15, 2015.
Dr. Robert Sanderson & Valerie Kinney, personal communication, July 8, 2011.
Anne Leahy, personal communication, June 7, 2011.
Diane Williams, personal communication, 2007.
Doug Stringham, personal communication, June 2, 2011.
Kenneth L. Kinner, personal communication, 2006.
Kleda Quigley, personal communication, April 15, 2015.
Dr. Robert Sanderson & Valerie Kinney, personal communication, July 8, 2011.
References
A Century of Memories: Utah School for the Deaf 100th Year Anniversary Alumni Reunion Booklet, 1984.
Baldwin, Stephen C. “Mainstreaming in retrospect: A Deaf Perception.” National Association of the Deaf (1990): 14-16.
Behan, Ben. “What if…Alexander Graham Bell had gotten his way?” In S. Wilcox (Ed.), American Deaf Culture: An anthology (pp. 83-87). Silver Spring, MD: Linstock, 1989.
Bitter, Grant. “A Summary Report for Tenure. Grant B. Dr. Bitter Papers, Accn #1072. Manuscripts Division, J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, March 15, 1985.
“Education Board Splits Teaching Methods for Deaf.” Ogden Standard-Examiner, December 29, 1970.
Evans, David S. “A Silent World in the Intermountain West: Records from the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind: 1884-1941.” A thesis presented to the Department of History: Utah State University. 1999.
First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni Booklet, 1976.
“From the Minutes.” The UAD Bulletin, vol. 2, no. 10 (Summer 1963): 4 & 5.
“History of the Deaf.” The Utah Eagle, vol. XVI, no. 9 (June 6, 1906): 137.
“Helen Keller.” The Utah Eagle (March 1941): 7 & 11.
Kinner, Kay. “The Burdett’s Picnic and Boating Party.” The Utah Eagle, vol. 65, no. 1 (October 1953): 13-14.
Lane, Harlan. (1984). When The Mind Hears: A History of the Deaf. New York: Random House, Inc.
Lane, Harlan, Hoffmeister, Robert, & Bahan, Ben. A Journey into the DEAF-WORLD. San Diego, CA: Dawn Sign Press, 1996.
Lane, Harlen. The Mask of Benevolence: Disabling the Deaf Community. San Diego, California: Dawn Sign Press, 1999.
"Martha Hughes Cannon," Wikipedia, January 22, 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Hughes_Cannon
"Maud Babcock." Wikipedia, December 28, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maud_Babcock
“Meet to Examine Help for the Deaf.” Deseret News, December 29, 1970.
Metcalf, Frank. “Dr. John R. Park.” The Utah Eagle, vol. xii, no. 2 (October 15, 1900): 12.
Mortensen, Dave. “President’s Message.” UAD Bulletin, vol. 13, no. 3 (June 1990): 1.
“NAD History.” https://www.nad.org/about-us/nad-history/
“New Developments in Utah’s Educational Programs for the Deaf.” The Utah Eagle, vol. 79, no. 5 (February 1968): 13 – 15.
“Ninth Annual May Festival – “The Story of the Deaf” – Utah School.” The Silent Worker, vol. 33, no. 4 (January 1921): 114 - 115.
Pace, Irma Acord. “A History of the Utah School for the Deaf.” The Utah Eagle, vol. 58, no. 1 (October 1946): 1-33.
Pratt, Laron. “A Good Word in Behalf of the Unfortunates.” Deseret News, April 1884.
“Reception Will Honor Retiring Deaf Teacher.” Ogden Standard-Examiner, 11B, May 23, 1974.
Roberts, Elaine M. “The Early History of the Utah School for the Deaf and Its influence in the Development of a Cohesive Deaf Society in Utah, circa. 1884 – 1905.” A thesis presented to the Department of History: Brigham Young University. August 1994.
Sanderson, Robert G. "Arthur Wenger Scholarship Fund." Utah Eagle. 68. no. 1 (October 1956): 4-5.
Sanderson, Robert, G. “The President’s Corner.” The UAD Bulletin, vol. 2, no. 10 (Summer 1963): 2. & 14.
Stringham, Doug & Leahy, Anne. ‘Far Away, In the West:’ The Emergence of Utah’s Deaf Community, 1850-1910,January 2013.
“The Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind Accreditation Visiting Team Report.” Utah State Office of Education.May 10-11, 2010.
“Those Were The Days…”UAD Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 4 (Summer 1964): 5.
Toone, Trent. "10 remarkable women in LDS Church history." Deseret News, May 7, 2014. https://www.deseret.com/2014/5/7/20540994/10-remarkable-women-in-lds-church-history/
“Two-way Program to be Instituted This Fall at Utah School for the Deaf.” Ogden Standard-Examiner, June 14, 1962.
“USDB Had Begun the Move to New Campus.” UAD Bulletin, vol. 17, no. 12 (May 1993): 7.
“W” in the Deseret News. Dr. John R. Park: His Life and Work.” The Utah Eagle, vol. XII, no. 2 (October 15, 1900): 9-10.
Wenger, Arthur. “Distinctive Features of Schools for the Deaf; No. 11 --- The inspirational side of the Utah School.” The Silent Worker, vol. 33 no. 4 (January 1921): 111 – 113.
Wight, R. “Deaf Teaching Methods Debated.” Ogden Standard-Examiner, October 19, 1970.
White, Bob. “Notes and Comment From the Land of the Mormons.” The Silent Worker, vol. 32, no. 9 (June 1920): 243.
“Who’s For The Deaf ?” The UAD Bulletin, vol. 2, no. 8 (Fall-Winter 1962): 2-3.
Baldwin, Stephen C. “Mainstreaming in retrospect: A Deaf Perception.” National Association of the Deaf (1990): 14-16.
Behan, Ben. “What if…Alexander Graham Bell had gotten his way?” In S. Wilcox (Ed.), American Deaf Culture: An anthology (pp. 83-87). Silver Spring, MD: Linstock, 1989.
Bitter, Grant. “A Summary Report for Tenure. Grant B. Dr. Bitter Papers, Accn #1072. Manuscripts Division, J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, March 15, 1985.
“Education Board Splits Teaching Methods for Deaf.” Ogden Standard-Examiner, December 29, 1970.
Evans, David S. “A Silent World in the Intermountain West: Records from the Utah School for the Deaf and Blind: 1884-1941.” A thesis presented to the Department of History: Utah State University. 1999.
First Reunion of the Utah School for the Deaf Alumni Booklet, 1976.
“From the Minutes.” The UAD Bulletin, vol. 2, no. 10 (Summer 1963): 4 & 5.
“History of the Deaf.” The Utah Eagle, vol. XVI, no. 9 (June 6, 1906): 137.
“Helen Keller.” The Utah Eagle (March 1941): 7 & 11.
Kinner, Kay. “The Burdett’s Picnic and Boating Party.” The Utah Eagle, vol. 65, no. 1 (October 1953): 13-14.
Lane, Harlan. (1984). When The Mind Hears: A History of the Deaf. New York: Random House, Inc.
Lane, Harlan, Hoffmeister, Robert, & Bahan, Ben. A Journey into the DEAF-WORLD. San Diego, CA: Dawn Sign Press, 1996.
Lane, Harlen. The Mask of Benevolence: Disabling the Deaf Community. San Diego, California: Dawn Sign Press, 1999.
"Martha Hughes Cannon," Wikipedia, January 22, 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Hughes_Cannon
"Maud Babcock." Wikipedia, December 28, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maud_Babcock
“Meet to Examine Help for the Deaf.” Deseret News, December 29, 1970.
Metcalf, Frank. “Dr. John R. Park.” The Utah Eagle, vol. xii, no. 2 (October 15, 1900): 12.
Mortensen, Dave. “President’s Message.” UAD Bulletin, vol. 13, no. 3 (June 1990): 1.
“NAD History.” https://www.nad.org/about-us/nad-history/
“New Developments in Utah’s Educational Programs for the Deaf.” The Utah Eagle, vol. 79, no. 5 (February 1968): 13 – 15.
“Ninth Annual May Festival – “The Story of the Deaf” – Utah School.” The Silent Worker, vol. 33, no. 4 (January 1921): 114 - 115.
Pace, Irma Acord. “A History of the Utah School for the Deaf.” The Utah Eagle, vol. 58, no. 1 (October 1946): 1-33.
Pratt, Laron. “A Good Word in Behalf of the Unfortunates.” Deseret News, April 1884.
“Reception Will Honor Retiring Deaf Teacher.” Ogden Standard-Examiner, 11B, May 23, 1974.
Roberts, Elaine M. “The Early History of the Utah School for the Deaf and Its influence in the Development of a Cohesive Deaf Society in Utah, circa. 1884 – 1905.” A thesis presented to the Department of History: Brigham Young University. August 1994.
Sanderson, Robert G. "Arthur Wenger Scholarship Fund." Utah Eagle. 68. no. 1 (October 1956): 4-5.
Sanderson, Robert, G. “The President’s Corner.” The UAD Bulletin, vol. 2, no. 10 (Summer 1963): 2. & 14.
Stringham, Doug & Leahy, Anne. ‘Far Away, In the West:’ The Emergence of Utah’s Deaf Community, 1850-1910,January 2013.
“The Utah Schools for the Deaf and the Blind Accreditation Visiting Team Report.” Utah State Office of Education.May 10-11, 2010.
“Those Were The Days…”UAD Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 4 (Summer 1964): 5.
Toone, Trent. "10 remarkable women in LDS Church history." Deseret News, May 7, 2014. https://www.deseret.com/2014/5/7/20540994/10-remarkable-women-in-lds-church-history/
“Two-way Program to be Instituted This Fall at Utah School for the Deaf.” Ogden Standard-Examiner, June 14, 1962.
“USDB Had Begun the Move to New Campus.” UAD Bulletin, vol. 17, no. 12 (May 1993): 7.
“W” in the Deseret News. Dr. John R. Park: His Life and Work.” The Utah Eagle, vol. XII, no. 2 (October 15, 1900): 9-10.
Wenger, Arthur. “Distinctive Features of Schools for the Deaf; No. 11 --- The inspirational side of the Utah School.” The Silent Worker, vol. 33 no. 4 (January 1921): 111 – 113.
Wight, R. “Deaf Teaching Methods Debated.” Ogden Standard-Examiner, October 19, 1970.
White, Bob. “Notes and Comment From the Land of the Mormons.” The Silent Worker, vol. 32, no. 9 (June 1920): 243.
“Who’s For The Deaf ?” The UAD Bulletin, vol. 2, no. 8 (Fall-Winter 1962): 2-3.
